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z. Psychological Testing and Assessment > Revision PSY3041 Catherine > Flashcards

Revision PSY3041 Catherine Flashcards

To Provide an Overall Revision of the Unit based on the content of the Revision Lecture

1
Q

How many assumptions of Psychological Testing are there?

A

There are Seven Assumptions of Psychological Testing

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2
Q

Name the assumptions of Psychological Testing

A
  • Psychological Traits & States exist & can be quantified & measured
  • Test-related behaviour predicts non-test-related behaviour
  • Tests & Measures have strengths & weaknesses
  • Error is part of the measurement process
  • Testing & Assessment can be fair and unbiased and Benefits society
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3
Q

Name the 3 keys points related to Assumption 1 - that psychological traits and states exist

A
  • Psychological traits are stable & distinctive patterns of behaviour that characterise an individual & his/her reactions to the environment
  • Psychological states are also distinguishable, though less enduring
  • Assumption 1 applies with administration & test construction
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4
Q

What are the key points related to Assumption 2 - that Psychological Traits & States can be Quantified & Measured?

A
  • Assumption 2 is rarely tested
  • Focus instead in on the development of test instruments
  • Attention is focused on emotional states, psychological traits of intelligence & personality
  • There are multiple theories of intelligence & of personality
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5
Q

Name the assumptions of Psychological Testing

A

Psychological Traits & States exist & can be quantified & measured

Test-related behaviour predicts non-test-related behaviour

Tests & Measures have strengths & weaknesses

Error is part of the measurement process

Testing & Assessment can be fair and unbiased and Benefits society

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6
Q

Name the 3 keys points related to Assumption 1 - that psychological traits and states exist

A

Psychological Traits are Stable, Distinctive Patterns of behaviour that characterise an individual & his/her reaction to their environment

  • Psychological States are also distinguishable, though less enduring
  • Assumption 1 is made by both Test Administrators & Test Developers
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7
Q

What are the key points related to Assumption 2 - that Psychological Traits & States can be Quantified & Measured?

A
  • Assumption 2 is rarely tested - Michell (1997) complains about this stating that psychologists side-step the scientific task of demonstrating an attribute is quantititative, skipping straight to the instrumental task of creating procedures for assigning magnitude to these attributes.
  • Focus instead in on the development of test instruments
  • which examine emotion states, & the psychological traits of intelligence and personality
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8
Q

What are the 3 main Theories of Intelligence, as applied to Assumption 2 that Psychological Traits and States can be Measured?

A

The 3 Main Theories of Intelligence are:

  • The Factor Analytic/Psychometric Approach
  • The Information Processing Approach
  • Gardener’s Multiple Intelligence Approach
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9
Q

What are the 3 Key aspects that comprise the Factor Analytic/Psychometric Approach to Intelligence?

A
  • studies Behaviour to understand intelligence (e.g. responses to numerical, spatial, verbal reasoning)
  • uses Complex statistical techniques to identify complex patterns of individual differences across tests
  • The approach evolved via the work of: Galton, Binet, Spearman
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10
Q

What are the 3 key aspects that comprise the Information Processing Approach to Intelligence?

A
  • focus is on HOW information is processed rather than WHAT is processed
  • information can be processed sequentially or simultaneously (Luria) (step by step vs all at once)
  • Sternberg’s Triachic Theory of Intelligence proposes low-level abilities affect high-order cognition:
  • Knowledge Aquistion components
  • Performance componenets
  • Meta-Components
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11
Q

What are the key aspects that comprise Gardener’s Multiple Intelligence Approach?

A

Gardener’s theory of Multiple intelligence proposes at least 8 distinct types

some of which function independently others are interdependent:

  • linguistic,
  • logico-maths,
  • spatial,
  • musical,
  • kinaestetic,
  • interpersonal,
  • intrapersonal,
  • naturalistic
  • also proposed spiritual & existential intelligence

No g - general intelligence

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12
Q

What are the 4 main Theories of Personality,

as applied to Assumption 2

that Psychological Traits and States can be Measured?

A

The 4 Main Theories of Personality are:

  • The Psychoanalytic Approach
  • The Social-Cognitive Approach
  • The Type Approach
  • The Trait Approach
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13
Q

Name the Main points of the

Psychoanalytic approach to Personality,

as it applies to testing

A

This approach emphasises:

  • Childhood experience & the unconscious in motivating human actions
  • Uses Projective Methods or Techniques
  • Through disclosing their conscious/unconscious needs, desires, impulses,
  • The individual supplies the structure to the unstructured stimuli
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14
Q

Name the Main points of the

Social-Cognitive approach to Personality,

as it applies to testing

A

The Social-Cognitive Theory is:

  • Grounded in both behaviourism & cognition
  • Reciprocal Determinism is core concept and is concerned with
  • the interaction between behaviour, person and environment
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15
Q

Name the Main points of the

Type approach to Personality,

as it applies to testing

A

The Type Approach came from the Psychodynamic Approach

Personality is basically a classification system

e.g.

  • Myers-Briggs Type Inventory;
  • Type A & B;
  • Holland’s Self Directed Search;
  • Hippocrates (melancholic, phlegmatic, choleric & sanguine)
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16
Q

Name the Main points of the

Trait approach to Personality,

as it applies to testing

A

Individuals differ from one another in terms of:

distinguishable, stable, consistently expressed characteristics

e.g.

  • The Five Factor OCEAN Model -Measures: NEO-PI-R;
  • Cattel’s 16 Factor;
  • Eysenck Personality Inventory
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17
Q

What are the key points related to Assumption 3 -

that Test-Related Behaviour predicts Non-Test-Related-Behaviour?

A
  • A tests objective is to provide an indication of a test-taker’s behaviour;
    i. e. ‘predictive validity’

There are 2 types of performance tests:

  • Maximum-Performance tests &
  • Typical-Performance Tests
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18
Q

What is the Objective of a Test in terms of its Predictive Validity?

(Hint: In relation to Assumption 3)

A

A tests objective is to provide an indication of a test-taker’s behaviour;

e.g.

  • SAT’s, &
  • Big-Word / little-word test

\oth have ‘predictive validity’ which is a type of ‘criterion validity’

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19
Q

What are the key differences between

Maximum-Performance Tests and

Typical-Performance Tests?

A

Maximum-Performance Tests intend to capture the test-taker’s Best Work

e.g.s:

  • Achievement Tests,
  • Aptitude Tests
  • Psychoeducational Tests

these are used to make predictions for future abilities (entry into Univeristy, Graduate school, Employment)

Typical-Performance Tests however,

focus on what a test-taker can actually do rather than their potential

e. g.
* personality tests (no correct/incorrect answers)

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20
Q

What are the Main Aspects of Assumption 4,

which states that Tests have

Strengths and Weaknesses?

A

Psychological tests are imperfect measures of psychological attributes

Test Developers aim to maximise the strengths & minimise the weaknesses of psychological testing

Two key characteristics of tests that must be considered when constructing a test are:

  • reliability &
  • validity
21
Q

Name the main process steps involved in Test Development

A
  1. Test Conceptualisation
  2. Test Construction
  3. Test Try-out
  4. Item Analysis
  5. Test Revision
  6. Repeat steps 3, 4, 5 as required
22
Q

Name the 3 Key considerations in Test Development

A
  • Measurement rules: involves assigning no.s to the attributes of individuals according to nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio rules
  • there are 4 kinds of scales of measurement:
  • Likert
  • binary
  • forced choice
  • semantic difference scales

-When writing items start with an item pool & refine; using either selected response or constructed response items

23
Q

What is the difference between a Selected Response and a Constructed Response test item?

A

-A Selected Response item could be

  • a matching choice,
  • multiple choice or
  • true/false test item
  • test-taker chooses the most appropriate option

Whereas with a Constructed Response e,.g.,

  • completion item,
  • short answer
  • essay question
  • the test-taker creates their response.
24
Q

When considering Item Analysis, what elements create “Good” items?

A

Good items are:

  • Valid,
  • Reliable, &
  • Discriminate between test-takers

e.g. items answered correctly by high scoring and incorrectly by low scoring test takers

NB: items which do the opposite are “Bad” items

25
Q

List the 4 analytic tools used by test developers to analyse and select test items

& which are of particular interest to test-constructors?

A
  • Item Difficulty index
  • Item-Discrimination index
  • Item-Validity index
  • Item-Reliability index

NB: Item-Difficulty & Item-Discrimination are of particular interest to test-constructors

26
Q

How does a test-developer analyse a test-item using the Item-Difficulty Index?

A

-The Item-difficulty index is calculated as

  • the proportion of test-takers who answered the item correctly (p)
  • p can range from 0 (no-one answered correctly) to 1 (everyone answered correctly)
  • Each items on a test has a corresponding p-value
  • (p1 is item-difficulty index for item 1 etc)
27
Q

What is the ideal level of Item-Difficulty for a test as a whole?

A

The index of item difficulty for a test is the average of all the p-values for the test items

The Optimal average item difficulty is 0.5 (items should range from 0.3 - 0.8)

An Item-Difficulty of 0 or 1 does not discriminate between test-takers

28
Q

What are the key considerations of the Item-Discrimination Index?

A

-Measures the extent an item differentiates correctly on the behaviour the test is designed to measure

“Good” item (high +scores max of 1): most high scorers answer it correctly & most low scorers don’t

“Bad” item is the opposite (- d = big problem)

symbolised by d -Compares top 27% with bottom 27% of test-takers

29
Q

What is the equation for calculating* Item Discrimination*?

A

U = No. of High Scorers

L = No. of Low Scorers

n = The total No. of Scorers

d = discrimination index score

d = U - L /(Divided by) n

30
Q

What are the Main Aspects of Assumption 5, which states that

Various Sources of Error are part of the Measurement Process?

A

Measurement error refers to the idea that variables other than those measured by the test influence test performance

To understand the concept of error, it is necessary to understand reliability & validity

Test-taker scores contain the True Score & Error (this is Classical Test Theory)

31
Q

Name sources of Error Variance

A

Test Construction Item or content sampling

Test Administration environment

Test-taker & examiner related variables

Test Scoring & Interpretation Hand scoring or subjective judgements

32
Q

Name the key types of Reliability

A

Test-retest Reliability:

  • Correlating pairs of scores on 2 different administrations of the same test

Internal Consistency Reliability:

  • split-half testing
  • Cronbach (nondichotomous items)
  • Kuder & Richardson (dichotomous items)

Inter-scorer Reliability

  • The degree of agreement between scorers
33
Q

Name the Key types of Validity

A

Content Validity:

  • Items are reflective of what they are testing requires little knowledge of psychological theory

Construct Validity:

  • how well do inferences drawn from a test relate to theories about psychological constructs?
  • Use Factor Analysis & calculation of Convergent & Divergent validity

Criterion-related Reliability:

  • The extent the test correlates with & thus predicts characteristics of a person assessed independently of the test Assessed via concurrent & predictive validity
34
Q

What are the Main Aspects of Assumption 6,

which states that Testing and Assessment can be conducted in an Unbiased Manner?

A

Test Publishers strive to develop tests which are fair by ensuring they accord with key ethical principles and ethical codes

There are 3 Theoretical perspectives on Ethics:

  • Deontological (Duty Based)
  • Consequentialist (Outcome Based)
  • Personality Based (Virtue Ethics)
35
Q

Name the core principles of the Deontological (Duty Based) Ethical philosophy

A

Focuses on the concepts of Duty & Moral Obligation

A commitment to act in accordance with absolute Ethical Standards

Exemplified by Kant’s ‘categorical imperative’ i.e. humans are an ‘end’ in themselves & act so the principle of your action could become law

36
Q

Name the core principles of the Consequentialism (Outcome Based) Ethical philosophy

A

Focuses on the consequences or outcomes of actions rather than the underlying intention

The ‘good’ or ‘right’ action is that which promotes the greatest good for the greatest number of people i.e. utilitarianism

The moral worth of an action is dependent on its outcome;

cannot know if it is a ‘right’ act until all consequences have played out

AKA: the pleasure principle (Bentham) or the greatest happiness principle (John Stuart Mills)

37
Q

Name the core principles of the Personality/Character (Virtue Ethics) Ethical philosophy

A

-Exemplified by Aristotle’s virtue ethics More concerned with a virtuous individual than ‘right’ & ‘wrong’ acts

Virtuous characteristic traits:

  • Wisdom
  • creativity
  • curiosity
  • fairness
  • forgiveness
  • appreciation of beauty & excellence
  • prudence
  • integrity
  • respectfulness
  • benevolence

These are difficult to teach & apply & uphold specific ethical principles

38
Q

List the Key First-Level Principles in Ethical Decision-Making

A

DEPHOGS

Dignity

Equitability

Prudence

Honesty

Openness

Goodwill

Suffering Prevention

39
Q

Name the 3 General Principles of the APS Code of Ethics

A

General Principle: A - Respect for the Rights and Dignity of people & peoples B - Propriety C - Integrity

40
Q

Which of the Ethical Principles do the APS Code of Ethics most reflect?

A

The APS Code of Ethics is most reflective of the Deontological and Consequentialist views, however, there are shades of Virtue ethics contained within

41
Q

Summarise the basic elements of

General Principle A

in the APS Code of Ethics, which concerns

Respect for the Rights & Dignity of People & Peoples

A

Psychologists regard people as intrinsically valuable & respect their rights, including the right to autonomy & justice. Psychologists engage in conduct which promotes equity & the protection of people’s human rights, legal rights, and moral rights. They respect the dignity of all people and peoples. (APS, 2007, pg 11)

42
Q

Summarise the basic elements of

General Principle B

in the APS Code of Ethics, which concerns

Propriety

A

Psychologists ensure that they are competent to deliver the psychological service they provide.

They provide psychological services to benefit, & not to harm.

Psychologists seek to protect the interests of the people and peoples with whom they work.

The welfare of the clients and public, & the standing of the profession, take precedence over a psychologists’s self-interest.

(APS, 2007, pg 18)

43
Q

Summarise the basic elements of

General Principle C

in the APS Code of Ethics,

which concerns

Integrity

A

Psychologists recognise that their knowledge of the discipline of psychology. their professional standing, & the information they gather place them in a position of power & trust.

They exercise this power appropriately & honour this position of trust.

Psychologists act with probity & honesty in their conduct.

(APS, 2007, pg 26)

44
Q

List the 4 Ethical Traps

A

The 4 Ethical Traps are:

The Commonsense Objectivity Trap

The Values Trap

The Circumstantiality Trap

The Who Will Benefit? Trap

45
Q

Summarise the key points of the Commonsense Objectivity Trap

A

The belief that “commonsense, objective solutions” to dilemmas are easy since psychologists are ethical people using this approach every time they face a dilemma:

  • often the law is guiding our decisions (privacy & confidentiality);
  • objectivity is difficult to come by
  • we bring & impose our own belief system on situations, impacting objectivity
46
Q

Summarise the key points of the Values Trap

A

The Prominence of personal values over professional values & standards:

  • our religious, moral or personal values may conflict with professional code.
  • e.g. bias against divorce may negatively influence how we work with a client in a Family Violence situation
47
Q

Summarise the key points of the Circumstantiality Trap

A

The Belief that there are no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ answers to ethical dilemmas, that it is all down to circumstance.

Whereas, behaviour is often right or wrong according to professional ethical standards regardless of the circumstances under which it occurred.

48
Q

Summarise the key points of the Who Will Benefit? Trap

A

Results from confusion about Who will Benefit from a specific ethical dilemma

Resolving an ethical dilemma often means taking sides among 2 or more conflicting interests

The resolution of the dilemma may not always be in the clients best interest

49
Q

What are the Main Aspects of Assumption 7,

which states that Testing and Assessment benefits society?

A

Simply that psychological testing & assessment benefits society.

Although testing and assessment may seem undesirable at times, do the benefits of testing outweigh the costs?

  • An historical example of the SOCIAL COSTS of testing
  • H. H. Goddard and the menace of the feeble minded 15
  • Popularised the Frenchman Albert Binet’s intelligence scale
  • Source of the descriptor “moron” – below average IQ “high grade defectives”
  • Wanted to prevent the entry of the feeble minded into the US
  • Application of this test led Goddard to believe that the majority of refugees arriving to America from Eastern and Southern Europe were “morons”/feeble- minded

An historical example of the Social Benefits of testing:

  • Ability and the emergence of meritocracy
  • Awarding jobs and rewarding people on the basis of ability is historically novel
  • e.g.,Samuel Pepys, 1st person in the 1660s,was a middle-class Briton who was among 27 the first officials to make his way up in government by virtue of the fact that he was smart.

z. Psychological Testing and Assessment (35 decks)

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