Revision PSY3041 Catherine

Question 1

How many assumptions of Psychological Testing are there?

Answer 1

There are Seven Assumptions of Psychological Testing

Question 2

Name the assumptions of Psychological Testing

Answer 2

• Psychological Traits & States exist & can be quantified & measured
• Test-related behaviour predicts non-test-related behaviour
• Tests & Measures have strengths & weaknesses
• Error is part of the measurement process
• Testing & Assessment can be fair and unbiased and Benefits society

Question 3

Name the 3 keys points related to Assumption 1 - that psychological traits and states exist

Answer 3

• Psychological traits are stable & distinctive patterns of behaviour that characterise an individual & his/her reactions to the environment
• Psychological states are also distinguishable, though less enduring
• Assumption 1 applies with administration & test construction

Question 4

What are the key points related to Assumption 2 - that Psychological Traits & States can be Quantified & Measured?

Answer 4

• Assumption 2 is rarely tested
• Focus instead in on the development of test instruments
• Attention is focused on emotional states, psychological traits of intelligence & personality
• There are multiple theories of intelligence & of personality

Question 5

Name the assumptions of Psychological Testing

Answer 5

Psychological Traits & States exist & can be quantified & measured

Test-related behaviour predicts non-test-related behaviour

Tests & Measures have strengths & weaknesses

Error is part of the measurement process

Testing & Assessment can be fair and unbiased and Benefits society

Question 6

Name the 3 keys points related to Assumption 1 - that psychological traits and states exist

Answer 6

Psychological Traits are Stable, Distinctive Patterns of behaviour that characterise an individual & his/her reaction to their environment

• Psychological States are also distinguishable, though less enduring
• Assumption 1 is made by both Test Administrators & Test Developers

Question 7

What are the key points related to Assumption 2 - that Psychological Traits & States can be Quantified & Measured?

Answer 7

• Assumption 2 is rarely tested - Michell (1997) complains about this stating that psychologists side-step the scientific task of demonstrating an attribute is quantititative, skipping straight to the instrumental task of creating procedures for assigning magnitude to these attributes.
• Focus instead in on the development of test instruments
• which examine emotion states, & the psychological traits of intelligence and personality

Question 8

What are the 3 main Theories of Intelligence, as applied to Assumption 2 that Psychological Traits and States can be Measured?

Answer 8

The 3 Main Theories of Intelligence are:

• The Factor Analytic/Psychometric Approach
• The Information Processing Approach
• Gardener’s Multiple Intelligence Approach

Question 9

What are the 3 Key aspects that comprise the Factor Analytic/Psychometric Approach to Intelligence?

Answer 9

• studies Behaviour to understand intelligence (e.g. responses to numerical, spatial, verbal reasoning)
• uses Complex statistical techniques to identify complex patterns of individual differences across tests
• The approach evolved via the work of: Galton, Binet, Spearman

Question 10

What are the 3 key aspects that comprise the Information Processing Approach to Intelligence?

Answer 10

• focus is on HOW information is processed rather than WHAT is processed
• information can be processed sequentially or simultaneously (Luria) (step by step vs all at once)
• Sternberg’s Triachic Theory of Intelligence proposes low-level abilities affect high-order cognition:
• Knowledge Aquistion components
• Performance componenets
• Meta-Components

Question 11

What are the key aspects that comprise Gardener’s Multiple Intelligence Approach?

Answer 11

Gardener’s theory of Multiple intelligence proposes at least 8 distinct types

some of which function independently others are interdependent:

• linguistic,
• logico-maths,
• spatial,
• musical,
• kinaestetic,
• interpersonal,
• intrapersonal,
• naturalistic
• also proposed spiritual & existential intelligence

No g - general intelligence

Question 12

What are the 4 main Theories of Personality,

as applied to Assumption 2

that Psychological Traits and States can be Measured?

Answer 12

The 4 Main Theories of Personality are:

• The Psychoanalytic Approach
• The Social-Cognitive Approach
• The Type Approach
• The Trait Approach

Question 13

Name the Main points of the

Psychoanalytic approach to Personality,

as it applies to testing

Answer 13

This approach emphasises:

• Childhood experience & the unconscious in motivating human actions
• Uses Projective Methods or Techniques
• Through disclosing their conscious/unconscious needs, desires, impulses,
• The individual supplies the structure to the unstructured stimuli

Question 14

Name the Main points of the

Social-Cognitive approach to Personality,

as it applies to testing

Answer 14

The Social-Cognitive Theory is:

• Grounded in both behaviourism & cognition
• Reciprocal Determinism is core concept and is concerned with
• the interaction between behaviour, person and environment

Question 15

Name the Main points of the

Type approach to Personality,

as it applies to testing

Answer 15

The Type Approach came from the Psychodynamic Approach

Personality is basically a classification system

e.g.

• Myers-Briggs Type Inventory;
• Type A & B;
• Holland’s Self Directed Search;
• Hippocrates (melancholic, phlegmatic, choleric & sanguine)

Question 16

Name the Main points of the

Trait approach to Personality,

as it applies to testing

Answer 16

Individuals differ from one another in terms of:

distinguishable, stable, consistently expressed characteristics

e.g.

• The Five Factor OCEAN Model -Measures: NEO-PI-R;
• Cattel’s 16 Factor;
• Eysenck Personality Inventory

Question 17

What are the key points related to Assumption 3 -

that Test-Related Behaviour predicts Non-Test-Related-Behaviour?

Answer 17

• A tests objective is to provide an indication of a test-taker’s behaviour;
  i. e. ‘predictive validity’

There are 2 types of performance tests:

• Maximum-Performance tests &
• Typical-Performance Tests

Question 18

What is the Objective of a Test in terms of its Predictive Validity?

(Hint: In relation to Assumption 3)

Answer 18

A tests objective is to provide an indication of a test-taker’s behaviour;

e.g.

• SAT’s, &
• Big-Word / little-word test

\oth have ‘predictive validity’ which is a type of ‘criterion validity’

Question 19

What are the key differences between

Maximum-Performance Tests and

Typical-Performance Tests?

Answer 19

Maximum-Performance Tests intend to capture the test-taker’s Best Work

e.g.s:

• Achievement Tests,
• Aptitude Tests
• Psychoeducational Tests

these are used to make predictions for future abilities (entry into Univeristy, Graduate school, Employment)

Typical-Performance Tests however,

focus on what a test-taker can actually do rather than their potential

e. g.
* personality tests (no correct/incorrect answers)

Question 20

What are the Main Aspects of Assumption 4,

which states that Tests have

Strengths and Weaknesses?

Answer 20

Psychological tests are imperfect measures of psychological attributes

Test Developers aim to maximise the strengths & minimise the weaknesses of psychological testing

Two key characteristics of tests that must be considered when constructing a test are:

• reliability &
• validity

Question 21

Name the main process steps involved in Test Development

Answer 21

1. Test Conceptualisation
2. Test Construction
3. Test Try-out
4. Item Analysis
5. Test Revision
6. Repeat steps 3, 4, 5 as required

Question 22

Name the 3 Key considerations in Test Development

Answer 22

• Measurement rules: involves assigning no.s to the attributes of individuals according to nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio rules
• there are 4 kinds of scales of measurement:
• Likert
• binary
• forced choice
• semantic difference scales

-When writing items start with an item pool & refine; using either selected response or constructed response items

Question 23

What is the difference between a Selected Response and a Constructed Response test item?

Answer 23

-A Selected Response item could be

• a matching choice,
• multiple choice or
• true/false test item
• test-taker chooses the most appropriate option

Whereas with a Constructed Response e,.g.,

• completion item,
• short answer
• essay question
• the test-taker creates their response.

Question 24

When considering Item Analysis, what elements create “Good” items?

Answer 24

Good items are:

• Valid,
• Reliable, &
• Discriminate between test-takers

e.g. items answered correctly by high scoring and incorrectly by low scoring test takers

NB: items which do the opposite are “Bad” items

Question 25

List the 4 analytic tools used by test developers to analyse and select test items & which are of particular interest to test-constructors?

Answer 25

* Item Difficulty index * Item-Discrimination index * Item-Validity index * Item-Reliability index NB: **Item-Difficulty** & **Item-Discrimination** are of particular interest to test-constructors

Question 26

How does a test-developer analyse a test-item using the **Item-Difficulty Index**?

Answer 26

-The Item-difficulty index is calculated as * the proportion of test-takers who answered the item correctly (p) * p can range from 0 (no-one answered correctly) to 1 (everyone answered correctly) * Each items on a test has a corresponding p-value * (p1 is item-difficulty index for item 1 etc)

Question 27

What is the ideal level of **Item-Difficulty** for a test as a whole?

Answer 27

The index of item difficulty for a test is the average of all the p-values for the test items The Optimal average item difficulty is 0.5 (items should range from 0.3 - 0.8) An Item-Difficulty of 0 or 1 does not discriminate between test-takers

Question 28

What are the key considerations of the *Item-Discrimination* Index?

Answer 28

-Measures the extent an item differentiates correctly on the behaviour the test is designed to measure "Good" item (high +scores max of 1): most high scorers answer it correctly & most low scorers don't "Bad" item is the opposite (- d = big problem) symbolised by d -Compares top 27% with bottom 27% of test-takers

Question 29

What is the equation for calculating* Item Discrimination*?

Answer 29

U = No. of High Scorers L = No. of Low Scorers n = The total No. of Scorers d = discrimination index score d = U - L /(Divided by) n

Question 30

What are the Main Aspects of Assumption 5, which states that Various Sources of Error are part of the Measurement Process?

Answer 30

Measurement error refers to the idea that variables other than those measured by the test influence test performance To understand the concept of error, it is necessary to understand **reliability** & **validity** Test-taker scores contain the True Score & Error (this is *Classical Test Theory*)

Question 31

Name sources of Error Variance

Answer 31

Test Construction Item or content sampling Test Administration environment Test-taker & examiner related variables Test Scoring & Interpretation Hand scoring or subjective judgements

Question 32

Name the key types of Reliability

Answer 32

Test-retest Reliability: * Correlating pairs of scores on 2 different administrations of the same test Internal Consistency Reliability: * split-half testing * Cronbach (nondichotomous items) * Kuder & Richardson (dichotomous items) Inter-scorer Reliability * The degree of agreement between scorers

Question 33

Name the Key types of Validity

Answer 33

Content Validity: * Items are reflective of what they are testing requires little knowledge of psychological theory Construct Validity: * how well do inferences drawn from a test relate to theories about psychological constructs? * Use **Factor Analysis** & calculation of **Convergent** & **Divergent** validity Criterion-related Reliability: * The extent the test correlates with & thus predicts characteristics of a person assessed independently of the test Assessed via *concurrent* & *predictive* validity

Question 34

What are the Main Aspects of Assumption 6, which states that Testing and Assessment can be conducted in an Unbiased Manner?

Answer 34

Test Publishers strive to develop tests which are fair by ensuring they accord with key ethical principles and ethical codes There are 3 Theoretical perspectives on Ethics: * Deontological (Duty Based) * Consequentialist (Outcome Based) * Personality Based (Virtue Ethics)

Question 35

Name the core principles of the Deontological (Duty Based) Ethical philosophy

Answer 35

Focuses on the concepts of Duty & Moral Obligation A commitment to act in accordance with **absolute** Ethical Standards Exemplified by Kant's '*categorical imperative*' i.e. humans are an 'end' in themselves & act so the principle of your action could become law

Question 36

Name the core principles of the Consequentialism (Outcome Based) Ethical philosophy

Answer 36

Focuses on the **consequences** or outcomes of actions *rather than* the underlying *intention* The 'good' or 'right' action is that which promotes the greatest good for the greatest number of people i.e. *utilitarianism* The moral worth of an action is dependent on its outcome; cannot know if it is a 'right' act until all consequences have played out AKA: the pleasure principle (Bentham) or the greatest happiness principle (John Stuart Mills)

Question 37

Name the core principles of the Personality/Character (Virtue Ethics) Ethical philosophy

Answer 37

-Exemplified by Aristotle's virtue ethics More concerned with a virtuous individual than 'right' & 'wrong' acts Virtuous characteristic traits: * Wisdom * creativity * curiosity * fairness * forgiveness * appreciation of beauty & excellence * prudence * integrity * respectfulness * benevolence These are difficult to teach & apply & uphold specific ethical principles

Question 38

List the Key First-Level Principles in Ethical Decision-Making

Answer 38

**DEPHOGS** Dignity Equitability Prudence Honesty Openness Goodwill Suffering Prevention

Question 39

Name the 3 General Principles of the APS Code of Ethics

Answer 39

General Principle: A - Respect for the Rights and Dignity of people & peoples B - Propriety C - Integrity

Question 40

Which of the Ethical Principles do the APS Code of Ethics most reflect?

Answer 40

The APS Code of Ethics is most reflective of the **Deontological** and **Consequentialist** views, however, there are shades of *Virtue* ethics contained within

Question 41

Summarise the basic elements of General Principle A in the APS Code of Ethics, which concerns Respect for the Rights & Dignity of People & Peoples

Answer 41

Psychologists regard people as *intrinsically valuable* & *respect their rights*, including the *right to autonomy & justice*. Psychologists engage in *conduct* which promotes *equity* & the protection of *people's human rights*, *legal rights, and moral rights*. They *respect* the *dignity* of *all people* and *peoples*. (APS, 2007, pg 11)

Question 42

Summarise the basic elements of General Principle B in the APS Code of Ethics, which concerns Propriety

Answer 42

Psychologists ensure that they are *competent* to deliver the psychological service they provide. They provide psychological services to benefit, & *not to harm*. Psychologists seek to *protect* the interests of the *people and peoples* with whom they work. The *welfare* of the clients and public, & the standing of the *profession*, take precedence over a psychologists's self-interest. (APS, 2007, pg 18)

Question 43

Summarise the basic elements of General Principle C in the APS Code of Ethics, which concerns Integrity

Answer 43

Psychologists recognise that their knowledge of the discipline of psychology. their professional standing, & the information they gather place them in a position of *power & trus*t. They exercise this *power appropriately* & honour this position of trust. Psychologists act with *probity* & *honesty* in their conduct. (APS, 2007, pg 26)

Question 44

List the 4 Ethical Traps

Answer 44

The 4 Ethical Traps are: The Commonsense Objectivity Trap The Values Trap The Circumstantiality Trap The Who Will Benefit? Trap

Question 45

Summarise the key points of the *Commonsense Objectivity* Trap

Answer 45

The belief that "commonsense, objective solutions" to dilemmas are easy since psychologists are ethical people using this approach every time they face a dilemma: * often the law is guiding our decisions (privacy & confidentiality); * objectivity is difficult to come by * we bring & impose our own belief system on situations, impacting objectivity

Question 46

Summarise the key points of the *Values* Trap

Answer 46

The Prominence of personal values over professional values & standards: * our religious, moral or personal values may conflict with professional code. * e.g. bias against divorce may negatively influence how we work with a client in a Family Violence situation

Question 47

Summarise the key points of the *Circumstantiality* Trap

Answer 47

The Belief that there are no 'right' or 'wrong' answers to ethical dilemmas, that it is all down to circumstance. Whereas, behaviour is often right or wrong according to professional ethical standards regardless of the circumstances under which it occurred.

Question 48

Summarise the key points of the *Who Will Benefit?* Trap

Answer 48

Results from confusion about *Who will Benefit* from a specific ethical dilemma Resolving an ethical dilemma often means taking sides among 2 or more conflicting interests The resolution of the dilemma may not always be in the clients best interest

Question 49

What are the Main Aspects of Assumption 7, which states that *Testing and Assessment benefits society*?

Answer 49

Simply that psychological testing & assessment benefits society. Although testing and assessment may seem undesirable at times, do the benefits of testing outweigh the costs? * An historical example of the SOCIAL COSTS of testing * H. H. Goddard and the menace of the feeble minded 15 * Popularised the Frenchman Albert Binet’s intelligence scale * Source of the descriptor “moron” – below average IQ “high grade defectives” * Wanted to prevent the entry of the feeble minded into the US * Application of this test led Goddard to believe that the majority of refugees arriving to America from Eastern and Southern Europe were “morons”/feeble- minded An historical example of the *Social Benefits* of testing: * Ability and the emergence of meritocracy * Awarding jobs and rewarding people on the basis of ability is historically novel * e.g.,Samuel Pepys, 1st person in the 1660s,was a middle-class Briton who was among 27 the first officials to make his way up in government by virtue of the fact that he was smart.