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HLB > Restrictive Pathologies and Combination Restrictive and Obstructive > Flashcards

Restrictive Pathologies and Combination Restrictive and Obstructive Flashcards

1
Q

What are some causes of restrictive lung disease?

A

Some causes of restrictive lung disease include parenchymal lung disease (DPLD), pleural disease, obesity, and chest wall disease.

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2
Q

What are some examples of parenchymal lung diseases that can cause restriction?

A

Some examples of parenchymal lung diseases that can cause restriction are pulmonary fibrosis, sarcoidosis, and pneumoconiosis.

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3
Q

What are some examples of pleural diseases that can cause restriction?

A

Some examples of pleural diseases that can cause restriction are pleural effusion, pneumothorax, haemothorax, pleural calcification, thickening, and mesothelioma.

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4
Q

What is another factor that can contribute to restrictive lung disease?

A

Obesity can be a factor contributing to restrictive lung disease.

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5
Q

What are some examples of chest wall diseases that can cause restriction?

A

Chest wall diseases that can cause restriction include neuromuscular disease, diaphragmatic palsy, kyphosis, and scoliosis.

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6
Q

What does DPLD stand for?

A

DPLD stands for diffuse parenchymal lung diseases.

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7
Q

What happens to the lungs in DPLD?

A

In DPLD, damage to the lung parenchyma leads to inflammation and fibrosis.

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8
Q

What is fibrosis in the context of DPLD?

A

Fibrosis refers to the scarring of the lungs due to DPLD.

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9
Q

What changes occur in the interstitium in DPLD-related fibrosis?

A

In DPLD-related fibrosis, the interstitium, which is the space between the epithelial cell and the endothelial basement membrane, becomes thicker.

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10
Q

How does fibrosis affect the lungs?

A

Fibrosis causes the lungs to become thick and stiff, reducing the transfer of oxygen (O2) from the alveolar space into the capillaries in the lungs.

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11
Q

What symptoms can occur due to fibrosis in DPLD?

A

Patients with fibrosis in DPLD may experience breathlessness or shortness of breath.

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12
Q

How does fibrosis affect oxygen saturation levels?

A

In fibrosis, the reduced transfer of oxygen in the lungs can lead to a drop in oxygen saturation levels.

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13
Q

What occupational exposures are associated with the patient’s history in DPLD?

A

The patient has a history of occupational exposure to asbestos, which is associated with pneumoconiosis.

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14
Q

What pets has the patient been exposed to in DPLD?

A

The patient has been exposed to birds such as pigeons, budgies, and parakeets.

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15
Q

What drugs has the patient taken that can be relevant to their condition in DPLD?

A

The patient has taken amiodarone, nitrofurantoin, and chemotherapy drugs.

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16
Q

Has the patient had any exposure to radiation in DPLD?

A

Yes, the patient has had exposure to radiation, including radiotherapy.

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17
Q

Is there any indication of autoimmune disease in the patient’s systemic enquiry in DPLD?

A

The systemic enquiry reveals features suggestive of autoimmune disease.

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18
Q

Has the patient been diagnosed with HIV in DPLD?

A

Yes, the patient has been diagnosed with HIV.

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19
Q

Is there any significant family history related to the patient’s condition in DPLD?

A

No significant family history related to the patient’s condition is mentioned.

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20
Q

What are the common symptoms experienced by the patient with DPLD?

A

The patient experiences breathlessness, progressively worsening, along with cough, fatigue, and weight loss.

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21
Q

What are some specific symptoms related to autoimmune disease or collagen vascular disease in DPLD?

A

The patient experiences difficulty swallowing, cold hands, joint pains, weight loss, and a skin rash, which are symptoms associated with autoimmune disease or collagen vascular disease.

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22
Q

What is idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF)?

A

IPF is a distinctive type of chronic fibrosing interstitial pneumonia of unknown cause that primarily affects the lungs.

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23
Q

Is IPF a common condition?

A

Yes, IPF is considered a common condition.

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24
Q

Is IPF more common in males or females?

A

IPF is more common in males.

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25
Q

Does the patient have any relevant occupational history?

A

No, there is no occupational history of relevance in this case.

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26
Q

Are there any features suggesting an autoimmune disease in the patient?

A

No, there are no features suggesting an autoimmune disease in the patient.

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27
Q

Can IPF have a familial component?

A

Yes, IPF can be familial, meaning it can run in families.

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28
Q

What is the typical age range for developing IPF?

A

IPF usually occurs in individuals over the age of 50.

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29
Q

How long has the patient been experiencing progressively worsening shortness of breath (SOB) in IPF?

A

The patient has been experiencing progressively worsening SOB for over 2 years.

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30
Q

What type of cough does the patient have in IPF?

A

The patient has a dry cough.

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31
Q

What lung auscultation finding is present in the patient in IPF?

A

Crackles are heard during lung auscultation.

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32
Q

Is there any evidence of clubbing in the patient in IPF?

A

Yes, clubbing is observed in the patient.

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33
Q

Has the patient experienced weight loss in IPF?

A

Yes, the patient has experienced weight loss.

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34
Q

What is the oxygen saturation level of the patient in IPF?

A

The patient is hypoxic, exhibiting low oxygen saturation levels.

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35
Q

What is the prognosis for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF)?

A

The prognosis for IPF is characterized by gradual deterioration.

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36
Q

What is the median length of survival from the time of diagnosis for IPF patients?

A

The median length of survival from the time of diagnosis for IPF patients is approximately 2.5-3.5 years.

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37
Q

Are there any exacerbations or sudden declines associated with IPF?

A

Yes, IPF can be marked by exacerbations and sudden declines in respiratory function.

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38
Q

What are the lung function findings in IPF?

A

In IPF, spirometry shows a restrictive pattern with a decreased Forced Vital Capacity (FVC), normal or slightly low Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 second (FEV1), and an increased FEV1/FVC ratio.

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39
Q

What other lung function test result is commonly reduced in IPF?

A

The Transfer Factor/Diffusing Capacity (TLCO) is typically reduced in IPF.

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40
Q

What are the main goals of symptomatic treatment in IPF?

A

Symptomatic treatment in IPF aims to address cough and hypoxia.

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41
Q

How is cough managed in IPF?

A

Cough in IPF can be managed with appropriate symptomatic treatments such as cough suppressants or mucolytic agents.

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42
Q

How is hypoxia managed in IPF?

A

Hypoxia in IPF can be managed with long-term oxygen therapy (LTOT), where supplemental oxygen is provided to maintain adequate oxygen levels in the blood.

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43
Q

What is the role of antifibrotic therapy in IPF management?

A

Antifibrotic therapy, such as pirfenidone or nintedanib, may be prescribed to slow disease progression and improve lung function in IPF.

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44
Q

What is another treatment option for advanced IPF cases?

A

Lung transplantation may be considered as a treatment option for advanced cases of IPF.

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45
Q

What is the role of palliative care in IPF management?

A

Palliative care plays a crucial role in managing symptoms, improving quality of life, and providing support for patients with IPF.

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46
Q

What conditions are non-specific interstitial pneumonia (NSIP) associated with?

A

NSIP is associated with autoimmune diseases and collagen vascular diseases (CVD).

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47
Q

What is the typical age range for developing NSIP?

A

NSIP is typically seen in individuals between the ages of 40 and 50.

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48
Q

Is NSIP more common in males or females?

A

NSIP has an equal prevalence between males and females.

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49
Q

Is there an association between NSIP and smoking?

A

No, there is no association between NSIP and smoking.

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50
Q

How long has the patient been experiencing progressively worsening breathlessness in NSIP?

A

The patient has been experiencing progressively worsening breathlessness over the course of 1 year.

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51
Q

Does the patient have a cough in NSIP?

A

Yes, the patient has a cough.

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52
Q

What lung auscultation finding is present in the patient in NSIP?

A

Crackles are heard during lung auscultation.

53
Q

Is there evidence of clubbing in the patient in NSIP?

A

Yes, clubbing is observed in the patient.

54
Q

What other symptoms does the patient experience in NSIP?

A

The patient also experiences fatigue and weight loss.

55
Q

What are some collagen vascular diseases associated with non-specific interstitial pneumonia (NSIP)?

A

NSIP can be associated with collagen vascular diseases such as scleroderma (CREST/systemic sclerosis), rheumatoid arthritis, and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).

56
Q

How does the prognosis of NSIP associated with collagen vascular disease compare to idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF)?

A

NSIP associated with collagen vascular disease generally has a better prognosis compared to IPF.

57
Q

How does NSIP associated with collagen vascular disease typically respond to treatment with anti-inflammatory drugs?

A

NSIP associated with collagen vascular disease tends to have a better response to anti-inflammatory drugs.

58
Q

What is the recommended management approach for NSIP associated with collagen vascular disease?

A

The management of NSIP associated with collagen vascular disease involves the treatment of underlying conditions (e.g., scleroderma, rheumatoid arthritis, SLE), immunosuppression to control inflammation, long-term oxygen therapy (LTOT) if needed, and palliative care to address symptoms and improve quality of life.

59
Q

What is sarcoidosis?

A

Sarcoidosis is a multisystem granulomatous disease characterized by the presence of non-caseating granulomas, often affecting multiple organs.

60
Q

What is the known cause of sarcoidosis?

A

The exact cause of sarcoidosis is unknown (unknown etiology).

61
Q

Which organs does sarcoidosis primarily affect?

A

Sarcoidosis primarily affects the lungs, although it can also involve other organs.

62
Q

What is the histological feature of sarcoidosis granulomas?

A

Sarcoidosis is characterized by the presence of non-caseating granulomas.

63
Q

Can sarcoidosis resolve spontaneously?

A

Yes, sarcoidosis can resolve spontaneously without treatment.

64
Q

Can sarcoidosis recur after resolution?

A

Yes, sarcoidosis can recur even after it has resolved.

65
Q

What is a potential complication of sarcoidosis?

A

Sarcoidosis can progress to pulmonary fibrosis, leading to irreversible lung damage.

66
Q

What are some possible causes or triggers of sarcoidosis?

A

Sarcoidosis can be triggered by remnants of microbial organisms, exposure to organic dusts, metals, minerals, solvents, pesticides, wood stoves, and in the case of beryllium exposure, it can result in pulmonary granulomas.

67
Q

Is there a familial component to sarcoidosis?

A

Yes, sarcoidosis can run in families, suggesting a genetic predisposition.

68
Q

What is the gender distribution of sarcoidosis?

A

Sarcoidosis is slightly more common in women compared to men.

69
Q

What is the age range commonly affected by sarcoidosis?

A

Sarcoidosis most commonly affects individuals between the ages of 20 and 50, with a smaller peak in individuals over 60 years old.

70
Q

Are there any ethnic differences in the prevalence of sarcoidosis?

A

Sarcoidosis is more prevalent in certain ethnic groups, including those of Scandinavian, Afro-Caribbean, and African American descent.

71
Q

What is the incidence rate of sarcoidosis in the general population?

A

The overall incidence rate of sarcoidosis is approximately 5 cases per 100,000 individuals, but it can vary from 1.3 to 64 cases per 100,000 in different populations.

72
Q

Is sarcoidosis the most common interstitial lung disease (ILD) in the UK?

A

Yes, sarcoidosis is the most common ILD in the UK.

73
Q

What are some associations of sarcoidosis?

A

Sarcoidosis can be associated with tuberculosis (TB) and lymphoma.

74
Q

How does sarcoidosis present acutely?

A

Acute sarcoidosis presents with symptoms of short duration, usually self-limiting.

75
Q

How does sarcoidosis present chronically?

A

Chronic sarcoidosis presents with symptoms of longer duration and persistent radiological changes.

76
Q

Can sarcoidosis be asymptomatic?

A

Yes, sarcoidosis can be asymptomatic and may be discovered incidentally during medical evaluations.

77
Q

What are some symptoms and signs of acute sarcoidosis?

A

Acute sarcoidosis can present with fever, night sweats, arthralgia (joint pain), myalgia (muscle pain), anterior uveitis (eye inflammation), erythema nodosum (painful red nodules on the skin), breathlessness, lymphadenopathy (enlarged lymph nodes), reduced appetite, and weight loss.

78
Q

What is Loefgren’s syndrome?

A

Loefgren’s syndrome is a specific manifestation of sarcoidosis, including erythema nodosum and bilateral hilar lymphadenopathy (BHL).

79
Q

How does acute sarcoidosis typically respond to treatment with oral prednisolone?

A

Acute sarcoidosis often responds well to treatment with oral prednisolone, a corticosteroid medication.

80
Q

What is the prognosis for acute sarcoidosis?

A

Acute sarcoidosis generally has a good prognosis, with symptoms often resolving with appropriate treatment.

81
Q

What does BHL stand for in the context of sarcoidosis?

A

BHL stands for bilateral hilar lymphadenopathy, which refers to the enlargement of lymph nodes in both lungs seen on imaging studies in sarcoidosis.

82
Q

What are some common symptoms of chronic pulmonary sarcoidosis?

A

Chronic pulmonary sarcoidosis is characterized by progressively worsening breathlessness, reduced exercise tolerance, cough, fatigue, anorexia, weight loss, neurological symptoms, bone pain, and skin lesions such as erythema nodosum (EN) and lupus pernio (seen in approximately 25% of cases).

83
Q

What other organ systems can be involved in sarcoidosis?

A

Sarcoidosis can affect almost any organ in the body, leading to various manifestations depending on the affected organs. Commonly involved organs include the lungs, skin, eyes, lymph nodes, liver, spleen, heart, nervous system, bones, and kidneys.

84
Q

Are there any specific skin lesions associated with chronic pulmonary sarcoidosis?

A

Skin lesions such as erythema nodosum (EN) and lupus pernio can be seen in chronic pulmonary sarcoidosis.

85
Q

What are some potential complications or associated findings in chronic pulmonary sarcoidosis?

A

Chronic pulmonary sarcoidosis can be associated with renal stones, and it may present with neurological symptoms, bone pain, and a variety of skin lesions.

86
Q

Can chronic pulmonary sarcoidosis mimic other diffuse parenchymal lung diseases?

A

Chronic pulmonary sarcoidosis can have similar clinical and radiological features to other diffuse parenchymal lung diseases, making the differential diagnosis wide.

87
Q

What components are included in the clinical approach to sarcoidosis?

A

The clinical approach to sarcoidosis involves taking a detailed history, including occupational history and family history, performing a physical examination, conducting various diagnostic tests, and considering the clinical, radiological, and histopathological features for diagnosis.

88
Q

What diagnostic tests are commonly performed in the evaluation of sarcoidosis?

A

Diagnostic tests for sarcoidosis may include chest X-ray, full lung function tests, blood tests (such as inflammatory markers, serum calcium levels, and angiotensin-converting enzyme), urinalysis, ECG (electrocardiogram), ophthalmologic examination, and tuberculin skin test.

89
Q

Is there a definitive diagnostic test for sarcoidosis?

A

No, there is no single definitive diagnostic test for sarcoidosis. The diagnosis is typically made based on the presence of compatible clinical, radiological, and histopathological features.

90
Q

What is the role of histopathology in diagnosing sarcoidosis?

A

Histopathological examination of affected tissues, such as a biopsy of the lung, skin, or lymph nodes, can help confirm the presence of non-caseating granulomas, which are a characteristic finding in sarcoidosis.

91
Q

How is the diagnosis of sarcoidosis established?

A

The diagnosis of sarcoidosis is established by considering the overall clinical presentation, radiological findings (such as chest X-ray or CT scan), and histopathological examination showing non-caseating granulomas in an involved organ.

92
Q

What is the radiological staging system for sarcoidosis?

A

Stage 0: Normal chest X-ray (5-10% of cases)
Stage 1: Bilateral hilar lymphadenopathy (45-65% of cases)
Stage 2: Hilar lymphadenopathy with involvement of the upper zone of the lung parenchyma (25-30% of cases)
Stage 3: Parenchymal disease in the upper zones of the lungs
Stage 4: End-stage pulmonary fibrosis

93
Q

What lung function abnormalities can be seen in sarcoidosis?

A

Lung function tests in sarcoidosis commonly show abnormalities consistent with a restrictive pattern, characterized by reduced lung volumes such as FVC (forced vital capacity). In some cases, airflow obstruction may also be present. Mixed restrictive and obstructive patterns can occur as well.

94
Q

What are some other investigations used in the evaluation of sarcoidosis?

A

Other investigations used in the evaluation of sarcoidosis include measuring serum ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme) levels, which are produced by activated macrophages in granulomas, and assessing for hypercalcemia (elevated blood calcium levels) and hypercalciuria (high calcium in urine), which can occur due to increased production of vitamin D by macrophages in granulomas.

95
Q

What is the natural history of sarcoidosis?

A

The natural history of sarcoidosis varies, but approximately two-thirds of patients experience remission within 10 years. In stage 1 sarcoidosis, around 60% of cases achieve complete resolution within 2 years. However, one-third of patients may experience progression of the disease with significant organ damage. In a small percentage (1-5%) of cases, sarcoidosis can lead to complications such as respiratory failure, cardiac arrhythmia, or neurosarcoidosis, which can result in death.

96
Q

What is the management approach for acute sarcoidosis?

A

Acute sarcoidosis is typically managed with oral prednisolone, which helps to reduce inflammation and control symptoms.

97
Q

What is the management approach for asymptomatic or stage 1 sarcoidosis?

A

Asymptomatic or stage 1 sarcoidosis often does not require specific treatment and can be managed through observation. Regular monitoring of symptoms, lung function, and radiological findings is important in these cases.

98
Q

What is the management approach for stage 2, 3, and 4 sarcoidosis?

A

Treatment with prednisolone is typically recommended in stage 2, 3, and 4 sarcoidosis, where there is evidence of progressive disease or significant organ involvement. Prednisolone helps to reduce inflammation and control disease activity.

99
Q

What are some other immunosuppressive drugs used in the management of progressive sarcoidosis?

A

In cases of progressive sarcoidosis or when prednisolone is not well-tolerated or insufficient to control the disease, other immunosuppressive drugs may be used. These may include methotrexate and mycophenolate mofetil, which help to suppress the immune system and reduce inflammation.

100
Q

What is a pleural effusion?

A

A pleural effusion refers to the accumulation of fluid in the pleural space, the space between the two layers of the pleura (the membrane that covers the lungs and lines the chest cavity). Pleural effusions can be categorized into exudates or transudates based on the underlying cause.

101
Q

What is an exudative pleural effusion?

A

An exudative pleural effusion is characterized by the presence of fluid in the pleural space that has a high protein content and is associated with inflammation. It is often caused by underlying conditions such as infection, malignancy, or inflammatory diseases.

102
Q

What is a transudative pleural effusion?

A

A transudative pleural effusion is characterized by the presence of fluid in the pleural space that has a low protein content and is caused by an imbalance in hydrostatic or oncotic pressures. It is often associated with conditions such as heart failure, liver cirrhosis, or kidney disease.

103
Q

What is a pneumothorax?

A

A pneumothorax refers to the presence of air in the pleural space, which can cause the lung to collapse. It can be classified as spontaneous, occurring without any apparent cause, or traumatic, resulting from an injury or medical procedure.

104
Q

What are some causes of traumatic pneumothorax?

A

Traumatic pneumothorax can occur due to procedural interventions (e.g., lung biopsy), penetrating trauma (e.g., gunshot or stab wounds), rib fractures, or barotrauma (e.g., from mechanical ventilation or scuba diving).

105
Q

What is a haemothorax?

A

A haemothorax refers to the presence of blood in the pleural space. It usually occurs as a result of trauma or injury to the chest, such as a rib fracture or a puncture wound.

106
Q

What is pleural thickening?

A

Pleural thickening refers to the abnormal thickening and scarring of the pleural membrane. It can be caused by various factors, including previous infections, asbestos exposure, or inflammatory conditions. Pleural thickening can restrict lung expansion and lead to respiratory symptoms.

107
Q

What is mesothelioma?

A

Mesothelioma is a type of cancer that develops in the mesothelial cells, which line the pleura, peritoneum, or other internal organs. It is strongly associated with asbestos exposure and often presents with pleural involvement, causing symptoms such as pleural effusion, pleural thickening, and chest pain.

108
Q

What is the role of pleural fluid in the pleural space?

A

Pleural fluid serves several functions in the pleural space. It helps lubricate the pleural surfaces, allowing smooth movement of the lungs during breathing. It also acts as a barrier, reducing friction between the lungs and the chest wall.

109
Q

How is pleural fluid sampled for analysis?

A

Pleural fluid can be obtained for analysis through a procedure called pleural aspiration or thoracocentesis. It is usually performed at the bedside under ultrasound guidance using local anesthesia and a needle. The fluid can then be collected and sent for laboratory testing.

110
Q

When is pleural drainage necessary?

A

Pleural drainage may be necessary if the patient with a pleural effusion is symptomatic, such as experiencing significant breathlessness or respiratory distress. Drainage can help relieve symptoms and improve lung function.

111
Q

What are some diagnostic tests used for evaluating pleural effusion?

A

Biochemistry: Measuring protein and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels in the fluid.
Microbiology: Performing microscopy, culture, and sensitivity testing to identify any infectious organisms present. Acid-fast bacilli (AAFB) staining may be done to detect tuberculosis.
Cytology: Examining the fluid for the presence of abnormal cells, which can help diagnose malignancies or other pathological conditions.

112
Q

How are the types of pleural effusion determined?

A

The types of pleural effusion are determined based on the content of the pleural fluid, specifically the levels of protein and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), as well as the corresponding serum protein and serum LDH levels.

113
Q

What is Light’s Criteria used for?

A

Light’s Criteria is a set of criteria used to differentiate between an exudative pleural effusion and a transudative pleural effusion. It helps to determine the underlying cause of the effusion by analyzing the ratios of pleural fluid protein/serum protein and pleural fluid LDH/serum LDH.

114
Q

What are the criteria for an exudative pleural effusion according to Light’s Criteria?

A

Pleural fluid protein/serum protein ratio greater than 0.5
Pleural fluid LDH/serum LDH ratio greater than 0.6
Pleural fluid LDH level greater than two-thirds of the upper limit of normal serum LDH

115
Q

What are the criteria for a transudative pleural effusion according to Light’s Criteria?

A

Pleural fluid protein/serum protein ratio less than 0.5
Pleural fluid LDH/serum LDH ratio less than 0.6
Pleural fluid LDH level less than two-thirds of the upper limit of normal serum LDH

116
Q

What are some common causes of transudative pleural effusion?

A

Congestive cardiac failure
Low albumin levels seen in nephrotic syndrome
Liver failure

117
Q

What are some common causes of exudative pleural effusion?

A

Malignancy
Infection (such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, or empyema)
Autoimmune diseases
Chylothorax (caused by blocked lymphatics)

118
Q

What are some clinical signs associated with pleural effusion?

A

Reduced chest wall movement on the side of the effusion
Decreased air entry on the side of the effusion
Dullness on percussion over the affected area, which is the most reliable finding
Decreased tactile vocal fremitus and vocal resonance on the side of the effusion
Bronchial breathing may be heard above the effusion
Tracheal deviation away from the side of a large effusion

119
Q

What is pneumothorax?

A

Pneumothorax is a condition characterized by the presence of air in the pleural space, which is the space between the lungs and the chest wall.

120
Q

What are the common symptoms of pneumothorax?

A

Sudden onset of chest pain
Breathlessness or shortness of breath
Rapid breathing
Decreased or absent breath sounds on the affected side

121
Q

How is pneumothorax managed?

A

Aspiration of air using a needle under local anesthesi This is done to relieve the pressure and allow the lung to re-expand.
Chest drain insertion: In cases where the pneumothorax is severe or recurrent, a chest drain may be inserted to continuously remove the air from the pleural space.

122
Q

What causes pneumothorax?

A

Pneumothorax is usually caused by the rupture of alveoli (air sacs) near the pleural space. This can occur spontaneously without an underlying cause (spontaneous pneumothorax) or as a result of trauma, underlying lung diseases, or medical procedures.

123
Q

What are the two main types of pneumothorax?

A

Primary pneumothorax occurs spontaneously without an underlying cause and is not associated with any pre-existing lung disease.
Secondary pneumothorax: It is caused by an underlying lung disease or condition.

124
Q

What are the risk factors for primary (spontaneous) pneumothorax?

A

Being tall and thin
History of asthma
Collagen vascular disease (CVD)

125
Q

What are some examples of underlying lung diseases that can cause secondary pneumothorax?

A

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
Pulmonary fibrosis

126
Q

What is chest wall disease?

A

Chest wall disease refers to conditions that affect the chest wall and can result in difficulty expanding the lungs during breathing. It does not directly affect oxygenation.

127
Q

What are the common causes of neuromuscular chest wall disease?

A

Motor neurone disease
Muscular dystrophy
Poliomyelitis
Diaphragmatic palsy

128
Q

What are the common causes of musculoskeletal chest wall disease?

A

Kyphosis (excessive outward curvature of the thoracic spine)
Scoliosis (sideways curvature of the spine)

129
Q

What can contribute to a combination of obstructive and restrictive lung diseases?

A

Smoking: Emphysema (obstructive) and pulmonary fibrosis (restrictive)
Pulmonary sarcoidosis: Endobronchial sarcoidosis (obstructive) and fibrosis (restrictive)
Obesity in smokers: Combination of airway obstruction (obstructive) and reduced lung expansion due to excess weight (restrictive)

HLB (40 decks)

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