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HLB > Respiratory Infection > Flashcards

Respiratory Infection Flashcards

1
Q

What are some risk factors for acute respiratory infection related to the immune system?

A

Poor nutrition, young children, elderly.

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2
Q

What factors contribute to the risk of acute respiratory infection related to socioeconomic conditions?

A

Poverty and poor access to basic amenities.

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3
Q

What is a factor that can increase the risk of acute respiratory infection?

A

Smoke pollution.

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4
Q

What environmental factor can contribute to the spread of acute respiratory infection?

A

Overcrowding.

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5
Q

Which population group is at an increased risk of acute respiratory infection due to immunocompromise?

A

Individuals with HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus).

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6
Q

What are the primary defense mechanisms in the lower airways against pathogens?

A

Cilia and the mucociliary escalator (MCE), and alveolar macrophages.

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7
Q

What roles do alveolar macrophages play in the immune response against respiratory infections?

A

They secrete antimicrobials, engulf and kill pathogens, recruit other immune cells, and process and present antigens to T cells.

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8
Q

Which components of the immune system are essential for combating intracellular pathogens in the respiratory system?

A

B cell and T cell responses.

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9
Q

How does IgA secretion contribute to the defense against respiratory infections?

A

IgA secreted by plasma cells interferes with adherence and viral assembly.

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10
Q

What is inflammation, and what are its macroscopic manifestations?

A

Inflammation is the body’s response to insult. Macroscopic manifestations include redness, swelling, heat, pain, and loss of function.

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11
Q

What are the microscopic changes associated with inflammation?

A

Microscopic changes include vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, and inflammatory cell infiltration.

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12
Q

How can inflammation be classified based on its duration?

A

Inflammation can be classified as acute or chronic.

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13
Q

Name some commensal bacteria commonly found in the mouth.

A

Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae.

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14
Q

What are some commensal microorganisms present in the sinus/nasal passages?

A

Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus (including MRSA), and rhinovirus.

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15
Q

Which microorganism is a common commensal in the throat, including strains that are methicillin-resistant?

A

MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus).

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16
Q

What is bronchitis?

A

Bronchitis is the inflammation of the bronchial tubes, often caused by viral or bacterial infections, leading to coughing and mucus production.

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17
Q

What is pneumonia?

A

Pneumonia is an infection that causes inflammation of the air sacs in one or both lungs, leading to symptoms such as cough, fever, and difficulty breathing.

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18
Q

What is pulmonary tuberculosis?

A

Pulmonary tuberculosis is a bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, primarily affecting the lungs and leading to symptoms such as persistent cough, chest pain, and weight loss.

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19
Q

What is empyema?

A

Empyema is a collection of pus in the pleural cavity, often resulting from a bacterial infection, and causing symptoms like chest pain, fever, and difficulty breathing.

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20
Q

Name some viral infections of the respiratory tract.

A

Influenza, rhinovirus, and RSV (Respiratory Syncytial Virus).

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21
Q

What virus causes the common cold, resulting in nasal discharge?

A

Rhinovirus is a common virus that causes the common cold, characterized by symptoms such as runny nose and congestion.

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22
Q

What bacterial pathogen is commonly associated with tonsillitis?

A

Streptococcus Group A is a common bacterial pathogen associated with tonsillitis, causing symptoms such as sore throat, swollen tonsils, and difficulty swallowing.

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23
Q

Which bacterial pathogens are commonly associated with bronchitis?

A

Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae.

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24
Q

What virus is primarily responsible for bronchiolitis, especially in infants?

A

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the main cause of bronchiolitis in infants

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25
Q

Name some bacterial pathogens commonly associated with pneumonia.

A

Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Legionella pneumophila, and Mycoplasma pneumoniae.

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26
Q

Which virus is the most common cause of the common cold?

A

Rhinovirus is the most common viral cause of the common cold, responsible for about 30-50% of cases.

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27
Q

What percentage of common colds are caused by human coronaviruses?

A

Human coronaviruses cause about 10 to 15 percent of common colds.

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28
Q

What is the role of bradykinin in causing symptoms of a cold?

A

Bradykinin causes a sore throat and nasal congestion by promoting vasodilation.

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29
Q

How is sneezing triggered during a cold?

A

Sneezing is mediated by stimulation of the trigeminal sensory nerves, which can be triggered by histamine release.

30
Q

How does the color of nasal discharge (snot) change during a cold?

A

The color of nasal discharge changes from white to yellow to green with increasing numbers of neutrophils, indicating the presence of myeloperoxidase.

31
Q

What triggers a cough during a cold?

A

The vagus nerve mediates coughing. Inflammation extending to the larynx is required to trigger a cough, which can be hyper-reactive in upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs).

32
Q

What role do cytokines play in causing systemic symptoms such as fever during a cold?

A

Cytokines are responsible for systemic symptoms like fever during a cold. They are signaling molecules that regulate the immune response and can induce fever as part of the body’s defense mechanism.

33
Q

What does bradykinin do in the context of inflammation during a cold?

A

Bradykinin, a peptide, promotes inflammation by increasing the production of prostacyclin, nitric oxide (NO), and other factors.

34
Q

What is the function of myeloperoxidase, and where is it found?

A

Myeloperoxidase is an enzyme found in neutrophils. It is used by neutrophils to attack pathogens as part of the immune response.

35
Q

What are some differences between a cold and influenza?

A

Cold: Appears gradually, affects mainly the nose and throat, feel unwell but able to work, no fever.
Influenza: Appears quickly within hours, affects the whole body, accompanied by symptoms like exhaustion, myalgia (muscle pain), fever, and unable to work.

36
Q

What viruses cause influenza?

A

Influenza is caused by Influenza A or B viruses.

37
Q

When is uncomplicated influenza most infectious?

A

Uncomplicated influenza is most infectious during the first 1-4 days of illness.

38
Q

What are some symptoms of influenza?

A

Abrupt onset of fever, cough, headache, myalgia (muscle pain), malaise, sore throat, and nasal discharge.

39
Q

How would you describe the impact of influenza on an individual?

A

Influenza can be acutely debilitating, causing significant symptoms that can interfere with daily activities.

40
Q

Who are considered at higher risk for complications associated with influenza?

A

Individuals with immunosuppression
Those with chronic medical conditions such as diabetes, COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease), and asthma
Pregnant women or those within 2 weeks postpartum
Individuals aged less than 2 years or over 65 years
Those with a BMI (Body Mass Index) greater than 40

41
Q

What are some complications that can arise from influenza?

A

Primary viral pneumonia
Secondary bacterial pneumonia
Central nervous system (CNS) disease
Death

42
Q

What are some challenges faced by the influenza virus?

A

Replication inside the host cell
Transmission from one infected cell to another in a new host
Developing mechanisms to evade host defenses

43
Q

What is the role of the influenza virus surface protein haemagglutinin (H)?

A

The haemagglutinin surface protein of the influenza virus binds sialic acid receptors on host cells in the respiratory tract, facilitating the virus’s entry into the cell.

44
Q

How does the neuraminidase (N) on the influenza virus surface contribute to its escape?

A

The neuraminidase enzyme cleaves sialic acid bonds, allowing the influenza virus to escape and prevent clumping of the newly formed virions.

45
Q

How does the segmented genome of the influenza virus contribute to its genetic diversity?

A

The influenza virus has a segmented genome consisting of eight parts. If two different influenza viruses infect the same cell, their genetic material can reassort, leading to the creation of new strains with different combinations of gene segments.

46
Q

What are some preventive measures for influenza?

A

Prevention options include practicing hand hygiene, following droplet precautions (such as wearing a mask), and receiving annual influenza vaccinations targeting the specific strains, particularly against the H1N1 subtype.

47
Q

What is the role of Tamiflu (oseltamivir) in the treatment of influenza?

A

Tamiflu is a neuraminidase inhibitor. It blocks the neuraminidase enzyme, preventing the replication of the influenza virus and helping to alleviate symptoms and reduce the duration of the illness.

48
Q

What is pneumonia?

A

Pneumonia is an infection of the lung parenchyma, characterized by inflammation and the accumulation of infected fluid and pus in the alveoli, which hinders oxygen transfer.

49
Q

What are common symptoms of bacterial pneumonia?

A

Symptoms of bacterial pneumonia include fever, breathlessness, cough, sputum production, and pleuritic chest pain.

50
Q

What signs can be observed in a person with bacterial pneumonia?

A

Signs of bacterial pneumonia include tachypnea (increased respiratory rate), reduced chest expansion and breath sounds, consolidation (dullness on percussion and increased tactile vocal fremitus and vocal resonance), and bronchial breathing.

51
Q

How does bacterial pneumonia contribute to hypoxia?

A

Bacterial pneumonia can lead to hypoxia by reducing the transfer of oxygen across the infected alveoli.

52
Q

How does pneumonia in elderly individuals often present?

A

In elderly individuals, pneumonia may not present with typical symptoms. Instead, they may exhibit confusion, general malaise, decreased appetite, and signs of dehydration.

53
Q

What are some classifications of pneumonia?

A

Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP)
Hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP)
Healthcare-associated pneumonia
Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP)
Aspiration pneumonia

54
Q

What are common symptoms of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in young and immunocompetent individuals?

A

Symptoms may include a productive cough with green or rusty brown sputum, fever, rigors (chills and shivering), pleuritic chest pain, and dyspnea (shortness of breath).

55
Q

How do the symptoms of CAP differ in the elderly or immunocompromised?

A

In the elderly or immunocompromised individuals, the listed symptoms may be present or absent. Additionally, new-onset confusion can be a significant symptom.

56
Q

What is the role of radiological imaging in the diagnosis of pneumonia?

A

The diagnosis of pneumonia requires infiltrates on a plain chest X-ray (CXR) that are supported by clinical features.

57
Q

What does consolidation refer to in the context of pneumonia?

A

Consolidation refers to the alveoli and bronchioles being completely filled with inflammatory debris, pus, and pathogens.

58
Q

What radiological findings may be observed in pneumonia?

A

Radiological findings in pneumonia may include obscured heart borders or diaphragm due to the loss of the solid-gas interface, air bronchograms (air in larger bronchi outlined by surrounding consolidation), and specific patterns such as lobar pneumonia or bronchopneumonia.

59
Q

What are some common bacteria associated with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP)?

A

Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Legionella pneumophila, and Staphylococcus aureus are commonly associated with CAP.

60
Q

Which organism is the most common cause of CAP?

A

Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common organism causing CAP.

61
Q

What are the risk factors associated with Streptococcus pneumoniae infection in CAP?

A

Risk factors include alcoholism, respiratory disease, smoking, hyposplenism (impaired spleen function), chronic heart disease, and HIV infection, which increases the risk of invasive pneumococcal disease by 50 to 100 times in HIV-positive individuals.

62
Q

Where is Streptococcus pneumoniae acquired?

A

Streptococcus pneumoniae is acquired in the nasopharynx.

63
Q

What percentage of individuals may carry Streptococcus pneumoniae asymptomatically?

A

Approximately 40-50% of individuals may carry Streptococcus pneumoniae asymptomatically, with a higher prevalence among smokers compared to non-smokers.

64
Q

How can Streptococcus pneumoniae infection be diagnosed?

A

Pneumococcal antigen can be detected in the urine for diagnosis of Streptococcus pneumoniae infection.

65
Q

What measures can be taken for prevention and treatment of Streptococcus pneumoniae CAP?

A

Prevention includes vaccination against Streptococcus pneumoniae. Treatment options for severe CAP caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae may include amoxicillin, clarithromycin, or co-amoxiclav.

66
Q

What type of organism is Haemophilus influenzae in the context of pneumonia?

A

Haemophilus influenzae is a Gram-negative anaerobe

67
Q

What is the prevalence of asymptomatic carriage of Haemophilus influenzae in healthy individuals?

A

Asymptomatic carriage of Haemophilus influenzae is common in healthy individuals.

68
Q

What type of pneumonia does Haemophilus influenzae commonly cause?

A

Haemophilus influenzae typically causes bronchopneumonia.

69
Q

Who is most commonly affected by Haemophilus influenzae pneumonia?

A

Haemophilus influenzae pneumonia primarily affects individuals with co-morbidities.

70
Q

What are some common complications associated with Haemophilus influenzae pneumonia?

A

Complications such as empyema (accumulation of pus in the pleural cavity) are common in Haemophilus influenzae pneumonia.

HLB (40 decks)

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