Restoration Flashcards
What has De Krey argued about the 1679-81 crisis?
It was a multifaceted Restoration crisis, rather than an exclusion crisis
What does De Krey see the competition between Whigs and Tories as marking a turning point in?
The development of more modern structures of political debate and discussion
What does De Krey argue marked a crisis in the English restoration? What was it prompted by?
1667-73
Parliamentary consideration of an act to replace the expiring Conventicle Act of 1664
As what can the Restoration be seen as a transitional era between?
Long Reformation and the long 18th century
How was the triumphal royalism of 1660-1 seen in the 1970s?
As representing a deep seated national urge to re-establish monarchy
Who argued that politics were secularised after 1660?
Whigs and Marxists
Who argued that “new situations and new sets of problems for the restored monarch and his ministers” after 1660?
Jones
Who have argued that 1660 did not mark a fundamental watershed?
Harris and Goldie
What is an example to support the argument that there was a significant continuity in personnel?
Earl of Shaftesbury
What does Rose argue about Restoration political thinking?
That it often took place in a religious framework
Which two historians have shown that the collapse of the Protectorate after Richard Cromwell’s succession was not inevitable?
Woolrych and Hutton
What did anti-republic political discourse from 1659 focus on?
Need for a legitimate parliament AND need for a legitimate monarch
What did most people want?
A new and comprehensive settlement of hte country’s political and religious institutions
What was the desire for a free parliament based on, if not solely the restoration of Charles?
Reaction against the management, purging and massaging of Parliament since 1648
What does De Krey argue the political reaction of 59-60 based on?
“Preserving both parliament government and Protestant tradition”
What was most significantly restored in 1660
Unsteady partnership between crown and parliament
What was Restoration England a reaction against?
Sectarianism, republicanism, army, fiscal excesses, arbitrary government of partial parliaments
What was the impact of the habit of resolving disputes and resolving goals through political and legal channels?
Created an internalised and ingrained respect for the law
What was there a pervasive concern for?
Consensus and conciliation
What was the role of the monarch according to the ancient constitution?
To defend realm from attack and through law courts, maintain order, protect property, resolve disputes
Why were prerogatives necessary according to the ancient constitution?
For the safety of the people and proper conduct of government
On what was there an emphasis as part of the ancient constitution?
Mutuality, participation, cooperation, consensus
What was implied by images of the king as a father figure?
That he was an innate and superior authority, but also that he had a duty to rule in his subjects’ interests
What did the concept of an ancient constitution allow for?
Ordered constitutional evolution
What came to be seen as contracts?
King’s coronation oath and subjects’ oaths of allegiance
What did people argue about the ancient constitution after 1646?
That it perpetuated tyranny and injustice
What was the restoration of monarchy seen as an essential condition for?
The restoration of gentry rule and the ancient constitution
Why was there every reason to give Charles II the benefit of the doubt?
Quarrel always with Charles rather than monarchy
Into what was Charles I transformed?
A martyr for monarchy and church
What did Whigs avoid talking about and speculating during the Exclusion Crisis?
Origins of government; preferred to urge king to heed fates of Edward II, Richard II and III
What did royalists argue was a lesser evil than the confusion unleashed by active resistance?
Occasional misuse of royal power
What did most Royalists and Tories believe in?
Common law - expected king to respect it
What was one key way in which royalists differed from Whigs (think threats)?
In seeing the main threat to the constitution and law as coming from revolution from below rather than crown
Why was the instinct to restore the ancient constitution?
Tried and tested means of providing effective, ordered government while securing liberties of the people
When was the Cavalier parliament?
May 1661
What was the first act passed by the Cavalier parliament?
Declared that the houses could not legislate without the king (all legislation since 1641 void)
What 1640s bone of contention was also resolved in an act from 1661?
Sole command of armed forces and militia reserved for king
What did the 1662 Licensing Act give?
Statutory basis to pre-publication press censorship
Why was the restoration policy inherently unstable constitutionally?
Did not provide crown with meals to rule without parliament, nor did it provide parliament with the means to maintain its role in government against a determined crown
Who argues that dissatisfaction with Charles’ diplomatic and domestic policies led to a breakdown as early as 1666-7?
Seaward
Who argues that Westminster politics tended to polarise along religious lines in the 60s and 70s?
Henning
How does Keeble view the 1660s?
As quickly slipping into “disappointment, disillusionment and resentment”
Who argues that the restoration chiefly restored “England’s troubles”?
Scott
Was the impact of the demystification of monarchy?
Crown had to maintain public support through the image of moderation as well as sacral imagery of divine right
With what kind of language did the royalists have to compete with?
Law, an ancient constitution, parliament, popular liberties, neighbourliness, urban citizenship
Who has argued that the restored crown’s capacity to manage the localities was also limited?
Coleby, Gauci, Halliday, Miller
Who have argued that the multilayered character of stuart government inhibited decisive interventions by the monarchy?
Braddick and Goldie
What % of the adult male population might be in some office at any given time?
As much as 5%
In what was Political power shared?
network of agencies - stakeholders from rich to poor
When did Charles begin to flex his prerogative?
when he was secure on his throne
What has de Krey argued resulted from the political crisis of 1679-81?
the beginnings of modern English politics rather than a repetition of the crisis of 40-2.
What period were the 70s traditionally compared to? What kind of comparisons were made?
1620s
- fear of European Protestantism’s extinction (30 YW vs. Louis XIV)
- Petitions against marriage of heir to foreign catholic
What did Holles (ex-speaker) argue was a violation in 1676 when Charles failed to fall parliament?
Petition of Right and Magna Carta
What was demanded in 74?
Removal of “evil counsellors”
Who led country opposition by 1675?
Shaftesbury and Buckingham
When did MPs try and push Charles into war with France?
1678
What did the Scots do in 1673 and with whose help?
Challenged Lauderdale’s management of the kingdom with help of English MPs
Why did Ireland remain quiet in this period?
Indulged Catholics and dissenters and economy rebounded from civil war disruptions
What challenged patriarchal and divine right theory in the 79/81 crisis?
Reassertion of contractual political theory and of natural and historic rights
What does Goldie see ideology as born in?
“As much in anticlericalism as in constitutionalism”
Whose techniques of parliamentary management did they criticise and when?
Danby, 74-8
What did York refuse to comply to?
1673 Test Act
Who argues the the confrontation between Charles and Whig opposition in 79/81 was about popery and arbitrary government?
Scott and Knights
what undermined the trust on which the Restoration settlement had rested o?
Charles’ forgoing his subjects trust and conversion of York
What differences has de Krey identified between the 40/2 crisis and 79/81?
Opinion not initially almost universally hostile to court as under Charles - more of an even division
What did parties still lack in this period?
Organisation and direction
In what way did parties begin to resemble their modern selves?
More organised, represented a stronger integration of parliamentary and local affairs and more ideologically hostile to each other than former rival factions/interests
What dramatic change had occurred in parliamentary politics by 1681?
By 1681, some electors saw their MPs as accountable to them for their parliamentary behaviour.
How did debates take place in a broadening public context?
Print used to direct debate and cultivate support
Who has argued that the threat was in the presence and a religious threat?
Scott
What was the key issue in Scotland and Ireland in 79/81?
Political choice between persecution and accommodation
Who was assassinated in Scotland in 1679?
Scotland’s Episcopal Primate
What was put down by Monmouth?
Covenanter insurrection occupying Glasgow
What did James do in a 1681 session of the Scottish estates?
New obligatory oath of uncompromising fealty to the crown and current governance of the Scottish church
Why did resistance fall apart?
Charles regained control over timing of sessions and never lost control over the Lords
What highlighted the complications inherent in Stuart rule over multiple kingdoms?
That the commons and Scottish estates moved in opposite directions over succession and church settlement
What fraction of the peerage by 1640 were Catholics?
1/10
How has Lake seen the protestant view of popery?
as based on a series of polar opposites, through which the evils of popery highlighted the virtues of Protestantism.
What was Protestantism identified with in the English mind? What was the implication of this?
ancient constitution - thus perceived threat of absolute monarchy linked to popery
What were structural similarities between Catholicism and absolutism?
reliance on force, repression and on keeping the people ignorant.
Who has shown how pervasive the belief in the popish plot was and how strongly it was based in fact?
Hibberd
Why did Court become identified with catholicism?
Charles’ mother and queen Catholic, and his two leading mistresses; several active Catholics at court; king allowed frequent and informal access to successive French ambassadors who were mostly Catholics.
What was one reason why anti-popery in 79/81 focussed on York?
Easier to attack the heir presumptive than the King - also undoubtedly a Catholic
What did Shaftesbury say to the Lords in 79?
“Popery and slavery, like two sisters, go hand in hand”
Who argues that the threat of popery and arbitrary government was somewhere in the future and only a possible threat?
Miller - popery mainly feared in the abstract
Who was responsible for organising the famous pope burning processions of the Exclusion Crisis?
Whig Green Ribbon Club
Who argues that Puritanism had not been of major significance in the lead up to the Civil War?
Finlayson
How many Catholics were executed between 1678-81?
24
What reflected teh importance of religion to the crisis?
Mass hysteria
What was the impact of Ireland’s presence?
Meant that England did not feel peripheral to the European situation but surrounded by it
What must be remembered about Charles II?
Spent half his adult life on the continent - he was not English or British religiously speaking but European
What did anti-Catholic propaganda aim to show?
Not only the ridiculousness/impiety/superstition of popery but its dreadfulness as a political phenomenon
What did Locke argue about catholics?
That Catholics should not be allowed toleration as they were primarily subjects of the pope rather than the civic state.
What did the 1672 Declaration of INdulgence coincide with?
Louis conquering the Low Countries
Who sees James’ conversion as decisive?
Miller - “without James’ conversion there would have been little persecution of Catholics in the 1670s, no popish plot and no exclusion crisis”.
When was the Triennial Act passed?
1664
When did Charles II rule without Parliament from?
1681
How many, at least, were executed in Scotland? What was this period remembered as by Presbyterians?
100 - some without legal process. Known as “the killing time”
Who argues that Scotland was on the verge of absolute monarchy by 1685?
Harris
What enabled the crown to overcome its long financial shortfall?
Taxes on growing trade
How does De Krey describe the late stuart rulers?
“State builders rather than absolutists”
What had been signed to calm the fears of the army and former presbyterians?
Declaration of Breda
Who did Charles agree to take on?
Men from the New Model Army on the same pay and conditions
What did the terms whig and tory originally refer to?
Whig originally referred to a radical Scottish Presbyterian and Tory to an Irish cattle thief.
How did Sir John Clerk describe Scotland in this period, from an 18th century perspective?
Restoration an age in which “religion and politics became totally confused”.
To what did some Scottish minsters compare Charles’ return?
Moses’ return from his Midian exile.
What did the Convenanters’ Declaration condemn?
“The formed and universal plot [to establish popery and arbitrary government] with the open introduction of slavery and tyrannical government in Scotland”.
On what did arguments relating the restoration of ecclesiastical government focus?
That the civil magistrate should adopt whatever form of government was most conducive to preservation of civil order
What did a 1661 pamphlet compare the restoration of episcopacy to?
“As the opening of that box of Pandora”.
What has Simms argued about land claims in Ireland?
“The claims of returning Catholics and entrenched Protestants were incompatible”.
Who tried to show that lotalty of Catholics in temporal matters was in no way qualified by spiritual allegiance to Rome?
Ormond
What was held in Ireland in 1670?
General Synod of Irish bishops
What did the 1662 Act of Uniformity dictate?
o Act of Uniformity of 1662 re-imposed the prayer book, slightly modified, and required the clergy to declare their approval of everything it contained – church puritans given choice of compromising their principles or leaving the church. Retained the rites, gestures, ceremonies and vestments that had annoyed puritans since 1560s, e.g. kneeing to receive communion, signing the cross in baptism.
What measures were passed against non-conformists in 1661-2?
Corporation Act and Quakers Act
What did the Quakers bill allow in contrast to legislation against Catholics?
family worship
What act was passed in 1665?
Five Mile Act - forbade the clergy ejected in 1663 to come to any corporate town or any parish which they had once held, unless they would swear not to attempt to change the government of church or state.
What did Robert Southwell say in 1679?
“There is now spread a universal demand of Reformation”.
How can the 1673 Test Act be seen?
As an anchor of Anglican privilege
What can be seen as an attack on Danby’s high-church policies?
Marvell’s “Account of the Growth of Popery and Arbitrary Government” of 1677
What fraction of the population were dissenters? What is this based on?
Dissenters as little as 4%, as most as 4-10%
Based on 1676 religious census
Who was a keen supporter of religious toleration throughout Chares’ reign?
Buckingham
Name a non-conformist MP
Henry Booth
What link does Spurr see between religion and loyalty?
Idea of a “close relationship/dependence”
What happened in 1665 which was compared to a biblical event?
Plague - God sent plague among Israelites for rebellion against Moses and Aaron
When did the issue of supremacy dominate parliament / destabilise?
63/73/85.
Who has shown that dissent was a major cause of tension throughout the period?
Barry
What does Barry argue sustained London radicals from crisis to crisis?
Conscience, not republicanism
Who observed in the 67-73 crisis that anti-episcopal rhetoric was “as bad as ever in the year 1640”?
Samuel Pepys
How did London dissenters help Charles in 1670?
Provided them with money when city magistrates only provided him with £20 000 out of £60 000
Who is an example of a moderate bishop who tried to get his clergy to conform and make compliance easy?
Reynolds
How many who refused in 1662 later prescribed?
171 at least
What does Duffy argue the church opted for in 1662?
Parish anglicanism
Who ascribes the survival of Laudians to their finding positions as chaplains?
Fincham
Where did Arminianism become dominant?
Cambridge
Why did people not like Quakers?
Refusal to submit to lawful authority was evidence of spiritual pride and probably seditious intent. Claim to be guided by conscience (Quakers and ‘inner light’) could be used to justify everything, including popery and the most abhorrent heresies.
Who argues that the 1665-7 Dutch War was prompted primarily by anxious Anglican loyalists?
Pincus
How important does De Krey see religious coercion in the political disagreements of the Restoration?
“At the heart of”
How has Goldie described England?
“As a persecuting society”
Who argues that many of the early Enlightenment’s compelling arguments for toleration were first advanced in England?
Marshall
What religious act was introduced in Scotland in 1670?
Clanking Act
Who argues that James did try to make royal authority in England absolute?
Speck
Who argues that James’ assertions of the prerogative were merely a means to the end of securing toleration?
Miller
What does Harris think James wanted to do?
Establish Catholicism absolutism
Who did James work with in Ireland?
Tyroncell
What kind of conception of kingship did Hobbs have?
Christian kings as having pastoral function (Uzziah esque)
How has Rose interpreted James’ policies?
As Tudor means of promoting political ends
What did Charles II ask in 1672?
“Have I any power to alter?”
Who had argued that coercion was a justifiable and effective instrument of education and persuasion?
Education
What three strains of thought regarding intolerance were there in the Restoration, according to de Krey?
Political, ecclesiological and theological
What term refers to the tolerance of things not directly banned in scripture?
Adiaphora
What do Erasistians believe?
That punishments should be referred to civil powers
What event in Ireland was crucial in bringing about the Restoration?
Seizure of Dublin Castle
What was passed in 1662?
Irish Settlement Act
What was passed in 1665?
Act of Explanation
What had been issued by Charles in November 1660?
‘Gracious Declaration’
Who argued that there was a profound difference between the Restoration settlement in England and Ireland?
Perceval Marxwell
Who has argued there was a “Land Revolution”?
Bottigheimer
What poet’s work shows a sense of shock and betrayal at the land settlement?
Gaellic Poet O’Bruadair
What did the Bishop of Ferns publish in 1668?
“A narrative of the settlement and sale of Ireland”
What did the Gracious Declaration confirm?
Gave precedence of ownership and possession to those who had retained or acquired possession under Cromwell
How many Catholic landowners were dispossessed without a hearing?
7000
Who argued that Ormond, Clarendon and Charles wanted a Catholic settlement?
Bottigheimer
Who argues that Protestants also deplored the settlement?
Connolly
Who has stressed continuation of peerage?
James
What did Arnold argue?
That Clarendon wanted nothing to do with the settlement but was forced to by circumstances
What fraction of land was recovered by Catholics?
1/3
What was issued in Ireland in January 61?
A proclamation declaring all meetings by papists, Presbyterians, Independents and separatists illegal
What was passed in Ireland in 66?
Act of Uniformity
What was there no equivalent to in Ireland?
Conventicle Act of 64
What were Catholics and Dissenters allowed to do in 66?
Take up their seats in the Irish parliament
What happened in response to the 79/81 conflict?
Three parliamentary elections in quick succession
What was the impact of royalist propaganda and royal building projects?
More baroque, more august conception of monarchy emanting from France
Who was eliminated through manipulation of the courts?
Lord Russell
From who did impetus for borough remodelling come from?
Boroughs themselves
What did Charles want to reduce his reliance on?
County militias, hence standing army
What had Presbyterians hoped to impose on Charles?
Restrictions similar to those proposed in 1648 (control over choice of ministers, control of armed forces and Charles having to accept some sort of Presbyterianism)
What was the consequence of the relatively even balance of Parliamentarians and royalists in parliament?
Meant royalists could thwart attempts to lay down preconditions for king’s returnq
What was especially spiteful about religious restoration legislation?
Extended to schoolmasters - designed to prevent ejected ministers earning their livings by taking pupils
When were the two conventicle acts?
64 and 70
What was repealed in 80-1?
Act vs seditious sectaries
Who was critical of ecclesiastical authority and clerical pretensions?
Shaftesbury
Who supported religious toleration throughout Charles’ reign?
Buckingham
How had Whigs and non-Conformists become powerful?
By violating law and managing to escape its provisions
What did Parliament reject proposals for?
To reform the prayer book in a Laudian direction
What did some bishops support in Lords?
Proviso to allow the king to dispense individuals from the requirements of the uniformity bill
What were restored but less effective?
Church Courts - 1661. lacked backing of Star Chamber
What qualification re. dissent was included in the Declaration of Breda?
That liberty of conscience should only be given to those who “do not disturb the peace of the kingdom”
What has de Krey argued was at the heart of political disagreements in the Restoration stuart kingdoms?
Religious coercion
What did the willingness of expelled/deprived Presbyterian clergy to return to public ministry through partial or full conformity reflect?
Reformed commitment to a national, Protestant order
Where did Presbyterianism retain strong popular roots in Scotland?
Lowland shires - sustained by Presbyterian lairds
What was the impact of religious persecution becoming a regular source of conspiracy and rebellion? Who argues this?
Marshall - turned secretaries of state into pioneers of modern domestic surveillance and espionage
What did the Clanking Act suppress (1670)?
“Seditious Conventicles”
How did Charles try to pacify Presbyterian clergy in Ireland?
Annual subsidy for their dissenting ministry
What had James tried to secure in 1687-8? What did this involve?
What did this represent?
A parliament of tolerationists
Remodelling government in favour of dissenters and Catholics and vetting candidates
Effort to shift toleration to a statutory foundation
Who argues that James did try to make royal authority absolute?
Speck
Who has regarded to James’ “abuses of power” as an incidental feature of his rule?
Miller
How did James try to overturn the Protestant ascendancy in Ireland, according to Harris?
Dispensed Catholics from all oaths intended to keep them out of offices and re-modelling of Irish boroughs
How does Pincus see James’ manner of government, as well as absolutist?
Intrusive
