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Y3 hist and exam > RESS > Flashcards

RESS Flashcards

1
Q

are audits and service evaluations called research in the NHS

A

No

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2
Q

Difference between an audit and service eval?

A

Audit- are standards being met, using existing standards and existing management data
SE- what factors are responsible- information gathering.

Both look at existing practice (research looks at new practice)

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3
Q

What does PECOS stand for?

A 
Patient/participant/people
Exposure/event/experimental intervention
Comparison
Outcome
Study design
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4
Q

What is MeSH?

A

Medical subject headings- all papers should be indexed with their relevant MeSH terms to be looked up.

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5
Q

3 competing priorities in studies?

A
  • correct answer
  • managing resources
  • complying with regulations
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6
Q

What is selection bias

A
  • non-representative sample

- selection influences exposure and outcome (confounding)

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7
Q

What are 3 types of measurement bias

A

Information
Observer
Recall

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8
Q

What is information bias

A

Mis-classified or mis-collected data

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9
Q

What is observer bias

A

the observers (or researcher team) know the goals of the study or the hypotheses and allow this knowledge to influence their observations during the study.

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10
Q

What is recall/prestige bias

A

Response is influenced by prior knowledge or belief

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11
Q

3 types of analytical bias

A

Loss to follow up
Omitted variable
Attributional

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12
Q

What is loss to follow up

A

Specific participants excluded

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13
Q

What is omitted variable bias

A

Imprecise adjustment for confounding variables

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14
Q

What is attributional bias

A

Misperception/incorrect interpretation of why something caused something else

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15
Q

What is publication bias?

A

exciting research is published more than boring research/research with no interesting outcome

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16
Q

Cross sectional studies provide evidence of association ____ a sample

A

Within

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17
Q

Case-control studies provide evidence of association _______ samples

A

Between

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18
Q

Cohort studies provide evidence of ____________

A

Directionality of associations

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19
Q

Trials provide evidence of _____

A

Causality

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20
Q

Meta-analyses provide evidence of _________

A

Reproducibility/generalisability

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21
Q

What is STROBE

A

Strengthening the reporting of observational studies in epidemiology

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22
Q

Observation –> pattern –> tentative hypothesis –> theory is what sort of reasoning?

A

Inductive/descriptive

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23
Q

Theory –> hypothesis –> testing –> observation –>reject/don’t reject is what sort of reasoning?

A

Deductive/analytical

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24
Q

Case studies involve what sort of reasoning?

A

Inductive

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25
Q

Analytical reasoning is observational or experimental. What is the difference?

A

Observational- selective sampling e.g. cross sectional or cohort study

Experimental- selective exposure e.g. a trial

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26
Q

What 3 things did the Belmont report decide?

A

Ethical concepts:

  1. Respect for persons- informed consent
  2. Justice- equitable distribution of burdens and benefits
  3. Beneficence- risks to human subjects must be justified by the value of the knowledge the study is expected to generate
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27
Q

What 6 things are required for participation to be voluntary?

A
  1. Informed participants
  2. Consented participants
  3. Reward-free
  4. Free to decline
  5. Free to withdraw
  6. Rights protection
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28
Q

What are the 4 vulnerable groups?

A
  1. limited agency (children)
  2. diminished autonomy (dementia)
  3. with needs (unwell)
  4. unable to consent (unconscious)
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29
Q

What is meant by ethics

A

Ensuring projects maximise benefits and minimise risks

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30
Q

what is meant by governance

A

Appropriate permissions

31
Q

Does this require ethical approval:

data/material that is already publicly available

A

No

32
Q

Does this require ethical approval:

projects collecting new info only on existing service delivery

A

No

33
Q

Does this require ethical approval:

Non human subjects covered by the animals act 1986

A

yes

34
Q

Does this require ethical approval:

Projects on non-human subjects/materials

A

No

35
Q

Does this require ethical approval:

Projects involving a new intervention

A

Yes

36
Q

Does this require ethical approval:

Service evaluations involving vulnerable participants or ethically sensitive data

A

Yes

37
Q

Does this require ethical approval:

Projects using only existing service management data

A

No

38
Q

Does this require ethical approval:

Projects collecting new information on more than only existing service delivery

A

Yes

39
Q

What 3 things must a project protocol include?

A

Why the project is necessary
What it will involve
How it will avoid ethical, legal, governance issues

40
Q

When must ethical approval be re-applied for after already having been granted?

A

Substantial changes

Unexpected deleterious effects

41
Q

3 types of sampling

A

Complete
Unstratified random
Stratified random

42
Q

What is a p value

A

Probability that the results are by chance if the null hypothesis is true (i.e. your exposure has no effect)

43
Q

What p value is normally accepted for something to be significantly different from the null hypothesis?

A

P<0.05

44
Q

What is an odds ratio

A

the odds that an outcome will occur given a particular exposure, compared to the odds of the outcome occurring in the absence of that exposure.

45
Q

a 95% confidence interval will……?

A

Contain the true value that we are trying to estimate 95% of the time

46
Q

A confidence interval of what value means that results are inconclusive?

A

If the interval crosses odds ratio of 1.

47
Q

increasing/decreasing sample size will increase/decrease confidence interval

A

Increase, decrease

48
Q

What is power?

A

The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when the null hypothesis is false (I.E. finding an association, if it is indeed there to be found)

49
Q

What makes a power greater?

A

Mean effect is bigger
Little variation
Large sample size

50
Q

When do you calculate power?

A

Before conducting a study to test design and to be able to justify.
After conducting an inconclusive study- to demonstrate that you were sufficiently well-powered to detect an association

51
Q

What value of power do we normally aim for?

A

80%

52
Q

What is odds???

A

The probability that something occurs divided by the probability that it doesn’t occur
(exposed/unexposed)

53
Q

What is the odds ratio if no effect?

A

1 i.e. the null effect. Don’t want this to be in the confidence intervals!

54
Q

Do you need to adjust for confounders?

A

Yes because they suggest a false statistical relationship

55
Q

Do you need to adjust for mediators?

A

No because they are part of the causative pathway

56
Q

Do you need to adjust for competing exposures?

A

You can if you want, might make the association easier to detect

57
Q

Give an example of a functional causal relationship

A

no contraception results in teenage mother

58
Q

e.g. of empirical causal relationship

A

Based on previous statistical analysis

59
Q

e.g. of theoretical causal relationship

A

teenage grandmother = teenage mother

60
Q

e.g. of speculative causal relationship

A

teenage grandfather = teenage mother

61
Q

What is a latent variable?

A

Missing data

62
Q

How can you cope with a latent variable?

A

If it is the exposure or outcome- change the study

If it is a confounding variable could use a proxy e.g. how many takeaways in place of saturated fat.

63
Q

How can you cope with missingness?

A

Compare to other participants
Create a ‘missing’ category
Interpolate (i.e. statistically estimate) the measurement

64
Q

When do you do a logistic regression?

A

When the outcome is binary

65
Q

What does an R^2 of 1 mean?

A

Perfect correlation

66
Q

Is a higher or lower R^2 better?

A

Higher

67
Q

R^2 is between what numbers

A

0-1

68
Q

When is a pseudo R^2 used?

A

Logistic regression

69
Q

When is R^2 used?

A

Linear regression

70
Q

What is COREQ

A

Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research- a 32 item checklist for interviews and focus groups. Useful tool when carrying out qual research.

71
Q

In qualitative research what is induction?

A

Generating a universal statement from individual cases

72
Q

In qualitative research what is deduction?

A

Using theories to explain individual cases

73
Q

In qualitative research what is purposive sampling?

A

Choosing participants who have the potential to provide rich, relevant and diverse data relevant to the research question

74
Q

In qualitative research what is maximum variability sampling?

A

Wide range of experiences, no preconceptions. Exploratory.

Y3 hist and exam (17 decks)

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