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Kin 1AA3 > Respiratory System > Flashcards

Respiratory System Flashcards

1
Q

3 steps to respiration

A

pulmonary ventilation
external respiration
internal respiration

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2
Q

pulmonary ventilation

A

aka breathing

movement of air into and out of the lungs

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3
Q

external respiration

A

gas exchange b/w air in lungs and blood (to/from external env’t)
- also includes transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide through the blood

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4
Q

internal respiration

A

gas exchange between blood and tissues of the body

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5
Q

respiratory system functions

A
  • regulation of blood pH
  • production of chemical mediators
  • voice production
  • olfaction
  • protection
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6
Q

regulation of blood pH

A

bicarbonate system alters blood pH by changing blood CO2 levels and producing/removing H+ ions

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7
Q

production of chemical mediators

A

ACE: angiotensin converting enzyme is produced by the lungs

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8
Q

voice production

A

movement of air past vocal folds makes sound and speech

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9
Q

olfaction

A

smell occurs when airborne molecules are drawn into nasal cavity

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10
Q

protection

A

against microorganisms by preventing entry and removing them from respiratory surfaces (found from nasal passages through to alveoli in the lungs)

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11
Q

upper vs lower respiratory systems

A

upper: nasal cavity, nose, pharynx
lower: larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs

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12
Q

conducting zones

A

movement of air but no gas exchange occurs here

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13
Q

respiratory zones

A

gas exchange occurs here

ie. only really includes the alveoli

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14
Q

olfactory epithelium

A

found in roof of nasal cavity and contributes to sense of smell

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15
Q

histology of nasal cavity

A

pseudostratified ciliated columnar with goblet cells lines nasal cavity

  • warms air (highly vascular)
  • mucous moistens air and traps dust
  • cilia move mucous towards pharynx
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16
Q

nasal vestibule

A

contains stratified squamous epithelium and is lines with nasal hairs

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17
Q

choana

A

internal naris (end of nasal cavity)

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18
Q

nasal conchae

A

ridges in naris create turbulent air

- are superior, middle and inferior

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19
Q

nasal meatuses

A
  • canals between conchae where air actually moves
  • have superior, middle and inferior ones
  • lacrimal duct carries into inferior meatus and also adds moisture to air
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20
Q

sinuses

A

small cavities in the bone

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21
Q

paranasal sinuses

A

composed of frontal sinus and sphenoidal sinus

  • lined with mucous membrane and makes skull lighter
  • also helps resonate sounds in voice production
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22
Q

hard palate

A

composed of maxilla and palatine bone

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23
Q

pharynx

A

13cm long muscular tube composed of skeletal muscle and mucous membranes
- extends from choaneae to opening of esophagus
functions include:
- passage for food, air
- resonating chamber for speech production
- tonsils are masses of lymphatic tissue that have immunological functions

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24
Q

regions of the pharynx

A

nasopharynx
oropharynx
laryngopharynx

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25
Q

nasopharynx

A

posterior to choanae, and superior to soft palate

  • passageway for air only
  • pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
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26
Q

oropharynx

A

soft palate to epiglottis

  • common passageway for air and food
  • stratified squamous epithelium
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27
Q

laryngopharynx

A

epiglottis to esophagus

  • common passageway for air and food
  • stratified squamous epithelium
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28
Q

soft palate

A

a little muscle and mucous membrane

- moves upward to close off nasal cavity when swallowing

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29
Q

fauces

A

opening of oral cavity into oropharynx

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30
Q

glottis

A

controls opening of vocal folds which can stop materials from entering the trachea

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31
Q

larynx

A

composed of 9 pieces of cartilage

- 3 are unpaired, 6 are in pairs, some attach to hyoid bone

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32
Q

epiglottis

A

leaf shaped piece of elastic cartilage

- during swallowing, larynx moves upward and epiglottis bends to cover glottis

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33
Q

thyroid cartilage

A

forms adam’s apple

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34
Q

cricoid cartilage

A

ring of cartilage attached to top of trachea

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35
Q

cuneiform cartilage

A

embedded in mucous membranes of epiglottis

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36
Q

arytenoid cartilage

A

articulates with corniculate cartilage

- moves and changes shape and tension of vocal folds

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37
Q

vestibular fold

A

false vocal fold

  • more superior
  • doesn’t actually change shape, stays open
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38
Q

vocal fold

A

true vocal fold

  • creates vibrations in the air as air passes them
  • abduction moves vocal folds apart for breathing
  • adduction involves medial rotation of arytonoid cartilage which moves vocal folds together
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39
Q

trachea

A

12 cm long

  • extends from larynx (cricoid cartilage) to T5 vertebrae
  • 16-20 C shaped rings of hyaline cartilage support dense regular CT and smooth muscle, prevents trachea from collapsing
    • the open part on posterior side is to accomodate the esophagus (elastic membrane and trachealis muscle)
  • thyroid wraps around trachea somewhat
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40
Q

histology of trachea

A

pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with goblet cells propel particulate matter towards the pharynx

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41
Q

tracheobronchial tree

A

approximately 16-18 divisions

  • progressive loss of cartilage replaced with plates of cartilage and then smooth muscle
  • trachea bifurcates (carina) resulting in primary bronchi, then secondary bronchi (lobar bronchus) to tertiary bronchi (right or left segmental bronchus)
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42
Q

carina

A

bifurcation of trachea, very sensitive and if debris touches it, it initiates cough reflex to keep it from entering the lungs

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43
Q

lung general anatomy

base, apex, hilum, lobes defined

A

base: sites on diaphragm
apex: pointed portion at the top of the lungs
hilum: medial surface where bronchi and blood vessels enter the lungs (aka root of the lungs)
lobes of the lungs: each are separated by secondary bronchi

44
Q

fissures of the lungs

A

oblique fissure: runs between superior and inferior lobes

horizontal fissure: separates superior and middle lobe (right lung only)

45
Q

differences in the R and L lungs

A

right lung: has 3 lobes (superior, middle, inferior) separated by oblique and horizontal fissures
left lung: has 2 lobes (superior and inferior) separated by oblique fissure

46
Q

cardiac notch

A

indentation in left lung to accommodate heart

47
Q

cardiac impression

A

where the heart sits on the medial side of the left lung

48
Q

pleural fluid

A

in pleural cavity (serous membrane that surrounds the lungs)

  • reduces friction
  • holds parietal and visceral pleura together
49
Q

terminal bronchiole

A

where gas exchange can actually occur

- lined with smooth muscle

50
Q

what are alveolar walls composed of?

A

type I and type II alveolar cells

51
Q

type I alveolar cells

A

pneumocytes

- flat cells, that allow a thin layer for gas exchange to occur

52
Q

type II alveolar cells

A

aka septal cells
pneumocytes also
- more round, secrete alveolar fluid that contains surfactant (a compound that reduces surface tension)
- line inside lumen of alveolar cavity

53
Q

diffusion of gases through the walls of the alveoli depends on:

A
  1. membrane thickness
  2. diffusion coefficient of a gas
  3. surface area
  4. partial pressure differences
    (#s 1-3 aren’t a problem in healthy individuals)
54
Q

membrane thickness

A

the membranes in alveoli and capillaries are both very thin, which allows for easy diffusion of gases

55
Q

diffusion coefficients of gases

A

measure how easily a gas diffuses through a liquid or tissue

  • based on how soluble the molecule is and the size of the molecule
  • gases with greater diffusion coefficients require less pressure to move from one area to another
56
Q

surface area

A

of alveoli and how many capillaries they come in contact with
- this declines as we get older

57
Q

partial pressure differences

A

gas moving from an area of higher to lower partial pressure, we want this pressure to equalize

58
Q

Dalton’s law

A
  • each has in a mixture of gases exerts its own pressure as if all other gases aren’t there
  • the total pressure is a sum of all the pressures of the individual gases
59
Q

atmospheric pressure

A

760mmHg

because it =PO2 + PCO2 + PN2 + PH2O

60
Q

partial pressure of O2

A

20.9%

= 158.6 mmHg

61
Q

partial pressure of CO2

A

0.04%

= 0.3mmHg

62
Q

partial pressure of N2

A

78.6%

= 597.4mmHg

63
Q

partial pressure of H2O

A

0.3%
= 2.3mmHg
- changes the most depending on altitude, location, time of year

64
Q

explain thinner air at higher altitudes

A

because pressure gets to be less when molecules are more spread out

  • the closer to the surface of the earth you are, the more molecules there are so the pressure is greater
  • people going to higher altitudes find it harder to breathe so they take oxygen with them to maintain driving pressure
65
Q

Henry’s law

A

the concentration of a gas in a liquid is determined by its partial pressure and its solubility coefficient
ie. [dissolved gas] = partial pressure of the gas X its solubility coefficient

66
Q

solubility of CO2 compared to O2

N2 compared to O2

A
  • CO2 is 24 times more soluble than O2

- N2 has even lower solubility than O2 because of the high pressure in the atmosphere

67
Q

deep sea diving and N2

A

deep sea diving and increased pressure forces more N2 to dissolve into the blood under the increased pressure of the system
- as you come back to the surface, the N2 comes out of solution so it becomes bubbles in blood and tissues and if it doesn’t, it results in decompression sickness

68
Q

modes of oxygen transport in the blood

A
  • dissolved under pressure (1.5%)

- bound to Hgb on RBC (98.5%)

69
Q

partial pressures of O2 in the body

A
  • inspired air PO2: 159 mmHG
  • alveolar air PO2: 105 mmHg - decreased caused by addition of H2O and loss of O2 to blood (moisture is added to prevent loss of alveolar fluid)
  • pulmonary veins PO2: 100 mmHg - decrease again because of equalization of pressures (PO2 in veins is 40 mmHg), also mixing with deoxygenated blood from bronchial veins
70
Q

modes of carbon dioxide transport in the body

A

7% dissolved in plasma
23% bound to Hgb on RBC (carbaminohemoglobin)
70% as bicarbonate ions

71
Q

partial pressures of CO2 in the body

A
  • body tissues PCO2: 45 mmHg
  • alveolar air PCO2: 40 mmHg
  • atmospheric air PCO2: 0.3 mmHg
  • doesn’t change as much as O2 because is more soluble and the atmospheric pressure is lower
72
Q

oxygen transport on Hgb

A

4 heme groups on Hb can carry up to 4 oxygen molecules

  • when 4 oxygen molecules are bound, the Hb is 100% saturated
  • this can be explained by the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve
73
Q

oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve

A

describes the % Hb saturated with oxygen at any given PO2

  • S shaped curve, affecte by pH, PCO2, temperature and 2, 3-bisphosphrglycerate (BPG)
  • when 100% saturated, Hb has a high affinity for oxygen, every time you remove an oxygen, the affinity for it decreases, giving the curve its S-shape
  • when the Po2 in cells drops, more oxygen leaves the Hb and at this point they’re at the muscle cells so this is good
74
Q

the effect of pH on the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve

A

increased pH shifts left, decreased pH shifts right
- as acidity increases, oxygen’s affinity for Hgb decreases
this is called the Bohr effect: H+ binds to Hgb and alters its shape, and oxygen is left behind in needy tissues

75
Q

the effect of CO2 on the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve

A

increased CO2 shifts right, decreased CO2 shifts left

- CO2 converts to carbonic acid and becomes H+ and bicarbonate ions and lowers pH

76
Q

the effect of temperature on the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve

A

increase temp shifts right, decrease temp shifts left

- metabolism produces heat as a byproduct and as temperature increases, more oxygen is released

77
Q

the effect of BPG on the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve

A

BPG is released by RBCs as they break down glucose for energy
when BPG binds to Hgb, it increases oxygen release from the Hbg
- happens more when oxygen is low and RBCs produce more BPG

78
Q

what is BPG

A

2,3-bisphosphoglycerate

79
Q

Haldane effect

A

Hgb that’s released oxygen binds more readily to carbon dioxide than Hgb that already has oxygen bound to it

80
Q

write out the bicarbonate ion reaction

A

write it out

81
Q

chloride shift

A

when bicarbonate leaves RBC, chloride ions area added into RBC for each one leaving to balance the electrical gradients

82
Q

how does pulmonary ventilation work

A
  • alternating pressure between atmosphere and the lungs by altering the pressure in the lungs so low or high relative to the atmosphere
  • air moves into the lungs when pressure inside is less than atmospheric pressure causing volume of the lungs to increase the volume of the thoracic cavity and causing a pressure drop, drawing air inside
  • the opposite happens for when air moves out of the lungs
83
Q

Boyle’s law

A

as the size of a closed container decreases, pressure inside increases

  • thus, pressure is inversely proportional to volume
  • changing the size of the alveoli changes the pressure
84
Q

alveolar pressure during inspiration

A

at the end of expiration, atmospheric pressure is equal with alveolar pressure and there’s no air movement then alveolar volume increases and alveolar pressure decreases, causing air to move into the alveoli

85
Q

alveolar pressure during expiration

A

at the end of inspiration, atmospheric pressure is equal with alveolar pressure. so when alveolar pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure, air moves out

86
Q

diaphragm and breathing

A

contraction (moves downward) and flattens dome shape, increasing the vertical dimension of the chest
- accounts for 65-75% of the volume changes

87
Q

movements of the ribs during breathing

A

movement of the ribs (7-10) up and out changes lateral and anterior/posterior dimensions of chest cavity

88
Q

factors affecting ventilation

A

surface tension of alveolar fluid
compliance of the lungs
airway resistance

89
Q

surfactant

A

a lipoprotein that keeps water molecules from being too attracted to each other and walter can’t form droplets as a result
- is produced by type II pneumocytes

90
Q

surface tension of alveolar fluid

A

the thin lauer of alveolar fluid coats the inner surface of alveoli exerting a surface tnesion

  • surfactant produced by type II pneumocytes decreases surface tension below the surface tension of water
  • during breathing, we must overcome the sirface tension in order to expand the lungs during inhalation
  • it also accounts for 2/3 of elastic recoil during exhalation
91
Q

pleural pressure

A

pressure in the pleural cavity is always less than atmospheric pressure and intra-alveolar pressure

  • during inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and chest wall expands
  • parietal pleura moves with the cavity and and increases the volume of the pleural cavity, decreasing the pressure of the inter-pleural cavity
  • suction effect of pleural fluid allows parietal fluid to pull the visceral pleura with it which increases the volume of the lungs and drops the internal alveolar pressure allowing inhalation to occur
92
Q

compliance of the lungs

A

how much effort is required to stretch the lungs and chest wall
is related to 2 factors:
- surface tension
- elasticity
due to the elastic fibers and surfactant, the lungs are usually highly compliant

93
Q

infant respiratory distress syndrome

A

often in prematurely born babies

  • don’t produce enough or too much surfactant in alveoli and can make the alveoli collapse
  • babies have very laboured breathing and respiratory muscles have to work very hard and often fatigue very easily
  • give babies pressurized air with surfactant until their body starts producing its own
94
Q

airway resistance

A

bronchioles reduce resistance during inhalation via vasodilation and increase resistance during exhalation by contracting smooth muscle
SNS: releases NE and relaxes smooth muscle in airway causing dilation and reducing resistance
PNS: released ACh, and causes smooth muscle to contract and increases resistance

95
Q

spirometer

A

measures air inspired/expired

96
Q

tidal volume

A

amount of air inspired/expired withe each breath

500mL at rest

97
Q

inspiratory reserve volume

A

amount that can be inspired forcefully after inspiration of tidal volume
3100ml at rest

98
Q

expiratory reserve volume

A

amount that can be forcefully expired after expiration of the tidal volume
1200ml at rest

99
Q

residual volume

A

volume still remaining in respiratory passages and lungs after most forceful expiration, otherwise lungs would collapse
1200ml

100
Q

inspiratory capacity

A

tidal volume plus inspiratory reserve volume

3600ml

101
Q

functional residual capacity

A

expiratory reserve volume + residual volume

2400ml

102
Q

vital capacity

A
  • the sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume and expiratory reserve volume
    or
  • total lung volume - residual volume
    4800ml
103
Q

total lung capacity

A

sum of inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and residual volume
6000ml

104
Q

minute ventilation

A

total air moved into and out of the respiratory system each minute
= tidal volume x respiratory rate

105
Q

respiratory rate (respiratory frequency)

A

number of breaths taken/minute

- typically 12 times/min = 6L/min

106
Q

anatomic dead space

A

conducting zone

formed by nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles

107
Q

alveolar ventilation

A

volume of air available for gas exchange/min

Kin 1AA3 (11 decks)

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