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Anatomy and Physiology > Respiratory system > Flashcards

Respiratory system Flashcards

1
Q

The respiratory system can be separated into two portions?

A

The conducting portion (nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchus, bronchioles) and the actual respiratory portion (smallest bronchioles, alveoli)

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2
Q

Describe the respiratory mucosa and its cellular makeup

A

This lines the conducting portion of the respiratory tract. A pseudo stratified ciliated columnar epithelium with mucous cells. The cilia sweep mucous and trapped debris up and out. There is an underlying lamina propr. made up of areolar tissue.

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3
Q

What are the types of epithelia along

  1. nasal cavity and upper pharynx?
  2. inferior portions of the pharynx?
  3. the superior portion of the lower respiratory tract?
  4. the narrower bronchioles?
  5. The gas exchange surfaces?
A
  1. Respiratory mucosa as described in another card
  2. stratified squamous epithelium
  3. typical respiratory mucosa
  4. simple cuboidal epithelium
  5. Simple squamous epithelium
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4
Q

Describe the pathology of cystic fibrosis

A

the most common lethal inherited disease. Causes abnormally sticky and thick mucus in conducting portions. It accumulates, blocking smaller passageways. Infections form in stagnant mucus. Life expectancy mid thirties.

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5
Q

Be sure to know the anatomy of the respiratory tract and voice production

A

pages 790-794

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6
Q

What does sympathetic control do to the secondary bronchi? Parasympathetic?

A

Sympathetic: Dilates it
Parasympathetic: Constricts it

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7
Q

How many secondary bronchi are in each lobe? how many primary?

A

3 in the right lobe, 2 in the left

2 primary in each

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8
Q

What is extreme or chronic bronchoconstriction called?

A

asthma

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9
Q

Describe the structure and cells at the alveolar epithelium

A

There are type II pneumocytes which produce surfactant. The squamous epithelial cells are called type II pneumocytes (these are the site of gas diffusion). Roaming alveolar macrophages patrol the surface for defense. There are capillaries throughout.

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10
Q

Describe the respiratory membrane

A

This area is super thin (0.5 microns) and is comprised of the alveolar epithelium superficially, then the fused basement membranes of the alveolar epithelium and the capillary epithelium. Deeper is the capillary endothelium and lumen.

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11
Q

What is the role of surfactant?

A

It plays a key role in keeping the alveoli open. It reduces surface tension, which would otherwise collapse the delicate thin alveoli.

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12
Q

Differentiate between external respiration and internal respiration.

A

External respiration= the gas exchange between the lungs and blood and the external environment.

Internal respiration= the absorption of oxygen from blood and release of carbon dioxide from the tissue cells.

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13
Q

What is Boyle’s law?

A

That pressure and volume are inversely related. In respiration, this means that decreasing thoracic volume in half doubles the pressure, forcing air out, etc.

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14
Q

How is the volume of the thorax related to the diaphragm?

A

When the diaphragm contracts, it pulls downward like a plunger, forcing the ribs out and up, thus increasing thoracic volume.

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15
Q

What are internal and external pressures at the start of a breath?

A

They are equal, thus no air movement

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16
Q

What is tidal volume?

A

The amount of air moved into the lungs during inhalation and out of the lungs during exhalation. At rest, the tidal volume is approximately 500mL.

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17
Q

What is atmospheric pressure?

A

760 mmHg

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18
Q

What are the primary inspiration muscles? The accessory inspiratory muscles?

A

primary: external intercostal muscles and the diaphragm
accessory: sternocleidomastoid muscle, scalene muscles, pectoralis minor, serratus anterior muscle.

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19
Q

What are the accessory expiratory muscles?

A

internal intercostals, transverse thoracis, external obliques, rectus abdominis, internal obliques. The main driver of expiration at rest is elastic recoil (?)

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20
Q

Draw out the a chart with the following:

IRV, Vt, ERV, minimal volume, total lung capacity, inspiratory capacity, vital capacity, FRC, and residual volume.

A

See page 805

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21
Q

What is IRV?

A

The amount of air that you can breathe in over and above the tidal volume.

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22
Q

What is ERV?

A

this is the amount of air that you can voluntarily expel after you have completed a normal, quiet respiratory cycle.

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23
Q

what is residual volume?

A

This is the amount of air that remains in your lungs even after a maximal exhalation.

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24
Q

What is the minimal volume?

A

A component of residual volume, it is the amount of air that would remain in your lungs if they were allowed to collapse. It can’t be measured in a healthy person.

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25
Q

What is total lung capacity?

A

The total volume of your lungs, found by adding vital capacity and residual volume.

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26
Q

What is inspiratory capacity?

A

the amount of air that you can draw into your lungs after you have completed a quiet respiratory cycle (it is tidal volume plus IRV)

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27
Q

What is vital capacity?

A

the maximum amount of air that you can move into or out of your lungs in a single respiratory cycle. IT is the sum of the ERV, tidal volume, and IRV.

28
Q

What is FRC?

A

Functional residual capacity is the amount of air remaining in your lungs after you have completed a quiet respiratory cycle. It si the sum of the ERV and the residual volume.

29
Q

What tests lung volume and capacities?

A

a spirogram

30
Q

How do we calculate the respiratory minute volume?

A

tidal volume multiplied by breathes per minute

31
Q

What is alveolar ventilation?

A

This is the amount of air reaching the alveoli each minute. It is always less than the respiratory minute volume, because some of the air never reaches the alveoli (stays in conducting portion). It is calculated by subtracting anatomic dead space from tidal volume, and then multiplying that number by breaths per minute.

32
Q

What is anatomic dead space?

A

This is the air that stays in the conducting portion of the system and never reaches the alveoli.

33
Q

Gas diffusion depends on what two factors?

A

Partial pressure and gas solubility.

34
Q

What is Dalton’s Law?

A

All the partial pressures of a gas mixture added together equal the total pressure exerted by the gas mixture.

35
Q

What is Henry’s Law?

A

This says that at a certain temperature, concentration of gas in a solution is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas.

36
Q

Describe the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide during external respiration (at the pulmonary capillary and at the respiratory membrane).

A

Blood arriving in the pulmonary arteries has a lower PO2 and a higher PCO2 than alveolar air. In arteries, PO2=40, PCO2=45; in alveolus P02=100, PCO2=40. This allows oxygen to diffuse down its concentration gradient into the blood and carbon dioxide to diffuse down its concentration gradient into the alveolar air. Partial pressures of gases in the blood equilibrate with that of the external air and leave with P02=100 and PCO2=40.

37
Q

Describe the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide during internal respiration (at the systemic capillary and the interstitial fluid).

A

P02 arriving at the tissues is now about 95, because there has been a little mixing with venous blood. Interstitial tissue has a P02 of 40, so oxygen diffuses out of the capillaries until P02 of the capillary is 40. The PC02 at the interstitial fluid is 45, whereas it is 40 in the capillary, so carbon dioxide diffuses into the capillary blood.

38
Q

Of the 20mL of O2 leaving the pulmonary circuit per every 100 mL of blood, how much is directly in solution?

A

only 1.5%, or about 0.03mL. The rest is bound to hemoglobin.

39
Q

What is hemoglobin saturation?

A

the percentage of heme units containing bound oxygen at any given moment. If all Hb molecules in the blood are fully loaded with oxygen, the saturation is 100%.

40
Q

What does an oxygen/hemoglobin saturation curve tell us?

A

Tells us the saturation of hemoglobin at different partial pressures of oxygen. Hemoglobin will be more than 90% saturated if exposed to a P02 above 60mmHg.

41
Q

How is carbon monoxide harmful?

A

It binds Hb tightly, so that O2 and CO2 can’t be carried to and away from tissues.

42
Q

What is the Bohr effect?

A

That Hb’s binding affinity for oxygen is inversely related to acidity and concentration of carbon dioxide.

43
Q

Describe the oxygen/hemoglobin saturation curve in relation to blood pH.

A

There is a right shift on the curve as pH drops. The drop in pH corresponds to the release of more bound oxygen.

There is a left shift as pH rises above normal. That is, hemoglobin releases less oxygen as blood becomes alkaline.

44
Q

How does a change in temperature affect the saturation curve?

A

increased temperature causes a right shift (the release of more bound oxygen)
decreased temperature causes a left shift (less oxygen released at tissues)

45
Q

What three options does CO2 have for transport to the lungs?

Which option happens the most?

A

1 is how most carbon dioxide transport happens

  1. to be converted to carbonic acid
  2. to bind hemoglobin
  3. dissolve in plasma directly
46
Q

Explain the carbon dioxide to carbonic acid process

A

70% of the CO2 is converted to carbonic acid. The reaction is catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase in the RBC. The resulting carbonic acid quickly dissociates from its proton for become a bicarbonate ion. The proton gets absorbed by hemoglobin (which is acting as a buffer here). The ion exits the cell through a channel that simultaneously lets a chloride ion in the RBC (chloride shift).

47
Q

What is compliance?

A

This is the ease of expansion of the lungs. the greater the compliance, the lower the tension in eh walls of the lungs at a given volume. Lower compliance means higher tension on the walls of the lugs at a give volume.

48
Q

Describe what happens with too much or too little compliance.

A

Loss of supporting tissues and destruction of alveoli increase compliance.
Reduced compliance can be caused by inadequate surfactant production and lead to respiratory distress syndrome.
Arthritis and joint problems can also reduce compliance.

49
Q

What is resistance? What could increase it? Decrease it?

A

An indication of how much force is required to inflate or deflate the lungs.

bronchioconstriction, excessive mucus production, or airway inflammation increase resistance.

Sympathetic activation of bronchiodilation reduces resistance.

50
Q

What is COPD?

A

The general term used for a progressive disorder of the airways that restricts airflow and reduces alveolar ventilation.

51
Q

Describe asthma

A

Asthmatic airways are extremely sensitive to irritation and respond by constricting smooth muscles along the bronchial tree. It is accompanied by edema and swelling of mucosa and increased resistance.

52
Q

Describe chronic bronchitis

A

Swelling and inflammation of the bronchial lining, increased mucus, blockage of airways, increase in infections, edema/heart failure often seen. Called “blue bloaters”

53
Q

Describe emphysema

A

“Pink puffers” This is a chronic condition with shortness of breath, destruction of alveolar surfaces that merge an lose elasticity, so muscles compensate and overexpand.

54
Q

What are the 3 levels of respiratory control at the nervous system?

A
  1. respiratory rhythmicity centers (DRG, VRG) at Medulla oblongata
  2. Apneustic and pneumotaxic centers at the Pons adjust the activities of the DRG/VRG
  3. Higher centers of the cerebral cortex, limbic system, hypothalamus adjust the activities of the apneustic and pnuemotaxic centers of the pons
55
Q

Describe the DRG

A

modifies activities in response to input from chemoreceptors and baroreceptors. This center functions in every respiratory cycle and controls motor neurons to diaphragm and external intercostal muscles.

56
Q

Describe the VRG

A

The VRG has centers that function only when breathing demands increase and accessory resp muscles become involved.

57
Q

What are the CNS control events involved during quiet breathing?

A
  1. Activity in the DRG stimulates the inspiratory muscles
  2. diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract and inhalation occurs
  3. Neurons in the DRG become inactive. They remain quiet for the next 3 seconds and allow the inspiratory muscles to relax.
  4. Diaphragm and external intercostals relax and passive exhalation occurs.
58
Q

What are the CNS control events involved during forced breathing ?

A
  1. Increased activity in the DRG stimulates neurons of the VRG that in turn activate the accessory muscles involved in inhalation. The expiratory center of the VRG is inhibited.
  2. Inspiratory muscles contract and expiratory muscles relax. Inhalation occurs.
  3. DRG and inspiratory center of VRG are inhibited, expiratory center of VRG is active.
  4. active exhalation occurs as the neurons of the expiratory center of the VRG stimulate the appropriate accessory muscles. Inspiratory muscles relax.
59
Q

How are baroreceptors involved in respiratory reflexes?

A

They alter the activities of the respiratory centers

60
Q

How are stretch receptors involved in respiratory reflexes?

A

They are responsible for inflation and deflation reflexes

61
Q

How are irritating physical or chemical stimuli in nose, throat or bronchial tree involved in respiratory reflexes?

A

They initiate protective reflexes

62
Q

What is hypercapnia/hypocapnia?

A

increased arterial PCO2 (typically from hypoventilation) or abnormally low PCO2 (typically from hyperventilation)

63
Q

Are chemoreceptors more sensitive to PCO2 or PO2?

A

PCO2

64
Q

What happens to respiration when baroreceptors detect low arterial BP? high BP?

A

They cause an increase in respiratory minute volume; (increases partial pressures)
High BP=decrease in respiratory minute volume.

65
Q

What is the purpose of the inflation reflex? basic mechanism?

A

Stretch receptors around bronchioles inhibit respiratory muscles via the respiratory rhythmicity centers and inhalation stops. Expiratory centers of the VRG are stimulated and forced exhalation begins.

66
Q

What is the purpose of deflation reflex?

A

Stretch receptors located in the alveolar walls are stimulated upon recoil and reduced volume. The expiratory centers of VRG are inhibited until exhalation stops; forced inhalation begins with activation of the DRG and inspiratory centers of the VRG.

67
Q

Explain how smoking causes cancer

A

Normal epithelium is exposed to carcinogens.

First phase is dysplasia. Cells are damaged; cilia are paralyzed. These changes cause buildup of local mucus.

Next comes metaplasia. the stressed respiratory surface converts to a stratified epithelium to protect underlying connective tissue. This stage is reversible.

Neoplasia and Anaplasia. In neoplasia, the growth of abnormal cells forms a cancerous tumor. In anaplasia, the cells become malignant and metastasize. Neither is reversible.

Anatomy and Physiology (11 decks)

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