Lecture 1 A&P Flashcards
What are the five big ideas for this class?
- Structure/function
- Evolution
- Systems
- Transfer of information
- Transfer of energy
What are the 8 necessary life functions?
- Boundaries between external/internal environment
- Movement
- Responsiveness
- Digestion
- Metabolism
- Excretion
- Reproduction
- Development/growth
Explain Homeostasis
Homeostasis: Maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment despite continuous outside changes.
What are two levels of regulation that the human body uses to maintain homeostasis? And give examples of each.
Intrinsic: Level of cell, tissue, organs. (This is auto regulation.)
Extrinsic: Nervous, endocrine (external regulation)
What is allostasis?
A deviation from homeostasis
Explain a negative feedback loop.
This is when the body responds to make the opposite effect of the perceived change in condition. It is involuntary and provides stability. Example: body temperature regulation.
Explain a positive feedback loop.
This is when the body exaggerates or enhances the initial stimulus. It is a vicious cycle, and typically for infrequent events, such as clot formation and childbirth.
Explain the cycle to maintain homeostasis (negative feedback loop)
Homeostasis, then it is disturbed. It is the stimulus that disturbs; the stimulus is detected by the receptor, which sends a signal to the control center, which in turn sends a signal to the effector for a response, which restores homeostasis.
Which systems are responsible for maintaining homeostasis in the each of the five categories:
- Nutrients in (4)
- Waste Out (4)
- Regulation (2)
- Protection (3)
- Reproduction (1)
- GI, Integumentary, Respiratory, Musculoskeletal
- GI, Urinary, Respiratory, Integumentary
- Nervous, Endocrine (also urinary)
- Integ, skeletal, immune
- Reproductive
What are the 5 survival needs
- Nutrients
- Oxygen
- Water
- Normal body temperature
- Appropriate atmospheric pressure
Give the general definition and function of a body cavity. Al
Closed, fluid filled chambers lined by a serous membrane. Functions: protection and organ flexibility.
What is a serous membrane?
It is a smooth membrane made up of a thin layer of cells that secrete serous fluid, and an underlying thin epithelial layer.
What are the body cavities?
Cranial cavity
Vertebral canal
Ventral cavity: Thoracic cavity (pleural, pericardial), abdominopelvic cavity (abdominal/aka. peritoneal cavity, pelvic). These are separated by the diaphragm.
What are visceral organs? List the systems that have visceral organs.
They are the organs completely enclosed in body cavities.
List: respiratory, cardiovascular, digestive, urinary, reproductive
explain the terms: retroperitoneal and infra peritoneal
Retroperitoneal: organ lies between the peritoneal lining and the muscle wall.
Infraperitoneal: organs which extend inferior to the peritoneal cavity
List the levels of organization of life for A&P (6)
- Chemical
- Cellular
- Tissue
- Organ
- Organ system
- Organism
Energy: Give the 3 main types
- Kinetic
- Potential
- Free (total energy of a system)
Energy: What are the 4 forms?
- Chemical
- Electrical (nerves)
- Mechanical (muscles)
- Radiant (hydrogen ion fusion)
What are the four levels of organization of matter?
- Matter/element/compound/molecule
Of the most abundant elements found in the human body, what are the 9 micronutrients?
- Calcium
- Potassium
- Sodium
- Iron
- Magnesium
- Chlorine
- Phosphorus
- Sulfur
- Iodine
Of the most abundant elements of the human body, what are the non-micro elements and their corresponding percentages?
- Oxygen (65%)
- Carbon (18%)
- Hydrogen (10%)
- Nitrogen (3%)
What is an isotope?
An element with the same number of protons, but a different number of neutrons? It doesn’t change their atomic number, but it does change their atomic mass.
What is a radioactive isotope?
An isotope with an unstable nucleus
What makes an element reactive?
Having an unfilled outermost shell
Why is water so unique? in one sentence
It is the only substance that occurs as a solid, liquid, and gas in a temperature range compatible with life.
What are the unique properties of water that the human body takes advantage of? (4)
- Solubility
- Reactivity
- High heat capacity
- Lubrication
What provides the surface tension of water?
Hydrogen bonding
Explain why water is a good solvent
Polar charges of water molecules allow water to disrupt ionic bonds in many inorganic compounds and cause them to dissolve. (At least 29 elements are dissolved in our body fluids)
What are electrolytes
Ions that can conduct an electric current (ex. NaCl)
How is water reactive?
Dehydration synthesis
Hydrolysis
Explain the unique heat capacity of water
Water has an unusually high heat capacity (due to H bonding); that is, it takes a lot of energy to raise the temperature of a unit mass of water by one degree. Water carries a lot of heat away as it becomes a gas. (useful in perspiration)
Thermal inertia: large volume of water changes temperature very slowly
How is water a good lubricant?
There is little friction between water molecules, which reduces friction between joints and body cavities.
Name the four functional groups important to our class. Give an example of where each could be used.
- amino group: acts as base (nucleotides, proteins)
- carboxyl group: acts as acid (fatty acids, amino acids)
- Hydroxyl group: may link molecules via dehydration, and affects solubility (carbohydrates, amino acids, fatty acids)
- phosphate group: links other molecules to form complexes and may store energy (phospholips, nucleic acids, high energy bonds on ATP)
How can we subdivide the category of nutrients and metabolites?
organic: C and H as in sugars, fats, proteins, nucleic acids
inorganic: CO2, O2, H20, acids, bases, salts
What are 3 kinds of physiological chemical reactions?
Give examples from the body
- Decomposition (this includes hydrolysis and catabolism)
- Synthesis (dehydration synthesis and anabolism)
- Exchange
Give a physiological example for decomposition
digestion
Give a physiological example for hydrolysis
break down of sugars for energy
give a physiological example for catabolism
break down of proteins to amino acids
give a physiological example for synthesis (anabolism)
repair tissue damage, build proteins
Give a physiological example for dehydration synthesis
Building a disaccharide from a monosaccharide
give a physiological example for an exchange reaction
neutralization of stomach acid by pancreas secretions
What is the normal pH range for blood?
What range will kill you?
7.35 to 7.45
under 7 or over 7.8
acidosis symptoms
fatigue, confusion, SOB, fruity breath
alkalosis
sustained involuntary skeletal muscle contraction
What are the three things that can activate a reaction?
pH changes, temperature changes, and enzymes
what is a catalyst?
lowers activation energy without being consumed
What are the four macromolecules for biology?
Protein, nucleic acid, carbohydrate, lipid
What is the CHO ratio for a lipid?
6:12:1 CHO
what is the structure of a lipid overall?
A carboxylic acid plus a fatty acid tail
What are the functions of lipids? (2)
- Form barriers (water insoluble)
2. Store energy (as in triglycerides)
What are 3 types of lipids?
- Eicosanoids
- Steroids
- phospholipids/glycolipids
Where do eicosanoids come from?
What are the two kinds of eicosanoids?
Must be obtained from food
Leukotrienes and prostaglandins
What are leukotrienes and prostaglandins?
Leukotrienes are produced in response to injury or disease. Prostaglandins coordinate local cellular activities; ex. stimulate pain sensation in response to tissue damage.
What is a main function of a cholesterol?
Controlling membrane flexibility.
What are the main functions of phospholipids and glycolipids?
Structural. They give the membrane structure
What is the difference between a saturated fat and an unsaturated fat?
An unsaturated fat does not have a full set of hydrogens, and therefore a double bond. This makes a crook in the shape of the tail. A saturated fat has all the possible hydrogens and a straight chain.
What is the CHO ratio for carbs?
1:2:1 CHO
What is the most important energy source (macromolecule) for the body?
Carbohydrates.
What are the storage forms of carbohydrates for energy in the body?
Glucose and glycogen
how many calories are gleaned from a mole of ATP?
12000 kcal
What is energy from ATP used for? (3)
- Active transport of ions across membranes
- Synthesis of compounds
- Mechanical work (ex. ciliary motion, muscle contraction)
What are the 3 main tenants of Cell theory?
- Cells are the smallest functional unit of life
- organismal functions depend on individual and collective cell functions
- Biochemical activities are dictated by their specific sub cellular structures
What are the three components of the cytoskeleton?
- microfilaments (microvili)
- Intermediate filaments
- Microtubules
Microfilaments: structure and function
smallest
composed of actin
present in most cells
provide cell strength and shape
they bind the cytoskeleton to the plasma membrane
they can bind cells together (muscle contraction)
Microvili
Fingerlike projections of plasma membrane in some cells to increase surface area. The structure for these is provided by microfilaments.
Centrosomes
These are centrioles associated with movement of DNA strands.
What are two forms of cellular locomotion?
amoeboid movement and ciliary movement
What is chemotaxis?
the movement toward or away from a chemical signal.
Where are cilia found in the human body?
Respiratory system, and fallopian tubes
Contrast cilia and microvili
Cilia: longer, wider, made of microtubules, motile, for locomotion and sweeping
microvili: shorter, narrower, made from microfilaments, not motile, for absorption
Reproduction of cells are controlled by what three factors?
- growth factors
- contact
- negative feedback from cell secretions
Explain process of apoptosis
genetically controlled cell death
a proteolytic cascade
cells shrink and condense
phagocytic cells attach to cell membrane and digest
abnormalities in apoptosis may cause cancer
Describe vesicular transport. Give 4 situations that would call for it.
The transport of large particles, macromolecules, and fluids across plasma membranes. It requires cellular energy.
- exocytosis
- endocytosis
- transcytosis (across interior of cell)
- Substance trafficking (from the golgi to the outside)
Function of a lysosome
They have a low pH; they fuse with another vesicle or organelle and then degrade the contents. Exocytosis follows. A lysosome could also take a product from the golgi apparatus either to degrade a bad product or to transport a product requiring a low pH environment.
Where are lipids formed inside the cell?
Smooth ER
What are the faces of the Golgi apparatus?
The cis face is closest to the smooth ER, and the trans face is facing the exterior of the cell for transport out.
What are three characteristics of the plasma membrane?
- Separates the inside of the cell from extra cellular environment
- Selectively permeable
- Has glycocalyx: superficial membrane carbohydrate layer
What are the four major cell functions?
- Replication
- vesicular transport
- synthesis and formation of cellular structures
- extraction of energy from nutrients
List three theories of cellular aging
- wear and tear (physical trauma)
- genetic theory (shortening of telomeres exposes ends of DNA)
- immune system disorders (cancer, pathogens)
What are angiogenic factors?
They are protein signals to draw vasculature to an area. Example to a tumor.
Give five examples of mutagens
- ionizing radiation
- chemical substances
- physical irritants (vodka)
- heredity
- viruses
Name the four tissue types
muscle, connective, epithelial, nervous
