Lecture 3 A&P Flashcards
1
Q
Give a very brief overview of the basic functions of each of the four tissue types
A
Connective tissue: stores energy, fills internal spaces, provides structural support
Epithelial tissue: lines passageways and chambers, covers exposed surfaces, form secretary glands
Muscle tissue: contracts to produce movement
Nervous tissue: conducts electrical impulses, carries information
2
Q
Epithelial tissue: Give relative abundance in body and name six functions
A
Most common tissue type in body
- forms barriers
- covers every exposed body surface
- lines digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts
- surrounds internal cavities
- lines inside of blood vessels
- produces glandular secretions
3
Q
Muscle tissue: give 3 types and 5 functions for this group
A
- cardiac
- skeletal
- smooth
- skeletal movement
- soft tissue support
- maintenance of blood flow
- movement of materials along passageways
- temperature stabilization
4
Q
Nervous tissue: name 2 types
What are the two nervous systems
A
Neurons and neuroglia
central and peripheral
5
Q
What two components make up a connective tissue in general?
A
Cells and their extra cellular matrix
6
Q
What is the matrix?
A
Protein fibers + ground substance
7
Q
Name 3 commonly used histology stains
A
H&E Haematoxylin (purple: stains nuclei) and Eosin (stains everything; pink)
silver stain
Wrights stain: blood smears
8
Q
Epithelial tissue: Give four roles of the tissue
A
- Provides physical protection
- Controls permeability
- Provides sensation
- provides specialized secretions
9
Q
What are two subcategories of epithelial tissue?
A
epithelia and glands
10
Q
What are 5 characteristics of epithelial tissue?
A
- Polarity (apical and basal sides)
- Specialized contacts
- Supported by connective tissue
- Avascular but innervated
- Regenerative (highly mitotic)
11
Q
Since epithelial tissue is avascular, how does it get its nutrients?
A
Epithelial tissue is usually associated with highly vascular connective tissue and nutrients diffuse across the basement membrane.
12
Q
Describe the surfaces of an epithelial cell
A
There is an apical surface; the other surfaces are called basolateral surfaces. Apical faces the environment or lumen, while the basolateral surfaces face other cells and the basement membrane.
13
Q
What are the layers of the basement membrane (basal lamina)?
A
- lamina lucida
2. lamina densa (Bundle of course fibers)
14
Q
- the lamina lucida is comprised of what?
2. describe the lamina densa. what is it made of?
A
- glycoproteins+protein filaments
2. bundle of course fibers; it is strong and acts as a filter between adjacent tissues and the epithelium
15
Q
What are four specialized contacts that epithelial cells use to connect to other cells?
A
- tight junctions
- adhesion belts
- desmosomes
- gap junctions
16
Q
How do we classify epithelial tissue?
A
By cell number and by cell shape
For cell number (stratified, vs. simple)
For cell shape (cuboidal, columnar, squamous)
17
Q
Simple squamous epithelial cells
What are two specialized subcategories of these cells?
A
Delicate, in protected low friction areas!
Function: allows materials to pass through by diffusion and filtration. Secretes lubricating substance.
Found: Air sacs of the lungs, lining of the heart, blood and lymphatic vessels
Subcategories: Mesothelium (lines pericardial cavity and peritoneal cavity), endothelium (lines the inside of the heart and blood vessels.
18
Q
Simple columnar epithelial cells
A
nuclei closer to basement, may have microvili or cilia
Function: absorbs; secretes mucous and enzymes
Found: ciliated tissues are in bronchi and uterus; smooth are found in the digestive tract and bladder
19
Q
Transitional epithelium
A
Function: Allows urinary organs to expand and stretch
Found: Bladder, urethra, and ureters
20
Q
Pseudo-stratified columnar epithelium
A
Appears layered but isn’t; usually has motile cilia
Function: secretes mucous; ciliated tissue moves mucous.
Found: (rare) Trachea and much of the upper respiratory tract
21
Q
Simple cuboidal epithelium
A
hexagonal nucleii in center
Function: Secretes and absorbs (not really protective)
Found: Ducts and secretory portions of small glands and kidney tubules
22
Q
Stratified cuboidal epithelium
A
Function: secretory
Found: ducts of sweat glands (rare)
23
Q
Stratified columnar epithelium
A
Function: secretes and protects
Found: male urethra and ducts of some glands
24
Q
Stratified squamous epithelium
A
Located at high stress areas “plywood”
Function: protects against abrasion, keratinized on exposed surfaces
Found: esophagus, mouth, vagina
25
Describe gland and give two subcategories and define them
Gland: collection of secretory epithelial cells.
Endocrine: secrete to the interstitial fluid
Exocrine: secrete through ducts
26
Give three types of secretion
1. Merocrine: accomplished through exocytosis
2. Apocrine: cytoplasm shed
3. Holocrine: cell lyses
27
How do we classify exocrine gland structure? (3)
1. structure of duct
2. Shape of secretory area of the gland
3. Relationship between the duct and secretory areas
28
Describe goblet cells
Secretory cells not present in glands; isolated in other epithelia; secrete mucin
29
List the 6 functions of connective tissue
1. Structural framework
2. transport
3. protection
4. support, surround and interconnect other tissue types
5. store energy (triglycerides)
6. Defend body from microbes (mast cells)
30
```
Loose connective tissue:
Major functions
Matrix
Cells
Types
```
F: supports other tissues
M: syrupy ground substance with extracellular protein fibers
Cells can be fixed or wandering
Types: aerolar, adipose, reticular
31
Describe aerolar tissue
This is a "mixed bag" of components.
32
describe reticular, collagen, and elastic fiber
Reticular=strong and branched
collagen=thick, strong bundles
Elastic= for stretching
33
Reticular tissue:
Function?
Found?
Function: provides support, fibers create a complex 3D network (stroma)
These are organ specific cells with occasional macrophages and fibroblast
34
What are 3 dense connective tissue types
1. dense regular
2. dense irregular
3. elastic
35
Dense irregular characteristics (5)
1. Fiber meshwork
2. Forces from many directions
3. cover visceral organs
4. cover bones, cartilage, peripheral nerves
5. Make up dermis
36
Dense regular tissue
What are they?
How are they arranged?
Tendons (chords)
Ligaments (sheaths)
Force runs parallel to long collagen fibers
37
Elastic (dense) connective tissue
Characteristics?
Where found?
When elastic fibers outnumber collagen fibers
They are springy and resilient
erectile tissue, between vertebrae, walls of blood vessels
38
Fluid connective tissue: what are 2 subcategories?
Blood and lymph
39
What is the matrix of blood?
Matrix fluid + soluble proteins = plasma, which is the matrix for blood fluid connective tissue
When you add the formed elements (platelets and RBC's_, it is blood
40
Lymph:
| Characteristics, function, and composition?
Interstitial fluid drains into lymphatic vessels and maintain fluid/solute homeostasis
eliminates waste, toxins, and alerts the immune system
composed of: water, solutes, plasma like matrix, and lymphocytes
41
Supporting connective tissue:
| What are the two types?
cartilage and bone
42
What are the three kinds of cartilage?
hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage
43
cartilage:
matrix?
Vascular?
firm gel containing polysaccharide derivatives called chondroitin/sulfates=matrix
Only the perichondrium is vascular
44
what are proteoglycans?
chondroitan/sulfate complexes with protein
45
What are cartilage cells? How are they configured in the matrix?
Chondrocytes; found in lacunae
46
What surrounds cartilage?
perichondrium
47
Describe the perichondrium
It contains blood vessel, provides nutrients and oxygen
Two layers:
Outer fibrous layer of dense irregular connective tissue (provides support and protection and attaches cartilage to other structures)
Inner layer: cellular layer
48
Explain cartilage growth (two types)
Appositional: adds new layers of cartilage to the surface. Stem cells differentiate into chondroblasts, which secrete matrix, they then mature into chondrocytes, sometimes in human adulthood
Interstitial growth: enlarges the cartilage from within, chondrocytes divide
49
Hyaline cartilage:
what does it do?
Found?
provides stiff but flexible support; reduces friction between bones
F: covers bone surfaces of moveable joints, etc
50
Elastic cartilage:
Characterize
found?
Numerous elastic fibers; to allow distortion and rebound without damage
Found: outer ear
51
Fibrocartilage
| describe
durable and tough, little ground substance; mostly interwoven collagen fibers. resists compression, prevents bone/bone contact
52
Supporting connective tissue: BONE
matrix?
cells?
Calcium salts + collagen fibers
| osteocytes
53
Epithelia and connective tissue combine to form what?
Membranes
54
Name four types of membranes:
1. mucous membranes
2. serous membranes
3. cutaneous membranes
4. synovial membrane
55
What do mucous membranes do?
Line passageways that communicate with the exterior
56
Describe a serous membrane
Mesothelium supported by areolar tissue. They are delicate and never connect to the exterior. These line body cavities: Pleura, pericardium, peritoneum
57
Describe a cutaneous membrane
Covers the surface of the body
Stratified squamous epithelium
Thick, waterproof, dry
58
Describe a synovial membrane
they line moveable joint cavities. the epithelium isn't a true epithelium(no basement, gaps between cells)
59
What is fascia?
Connective tissue layers that support/surround organs
60
What are the three layers of fascia?
```
Superficial fascia (areolar and adipose tissue)
Deep fascia (Dense irregular connective tissue)
Subserous fascia (areolar tissue)
```
61
What are the three categories of connective tissue?
1. Connective tissue proper
2. Fluid connective tissue
3. Supporting connective tissues
62
What are two subcategories of connective tissue proper?`
1. Loose
| 2. Dense
63
What are three types of loose connective tissue?
1. Areolar
2. adipose
3. reticular
64
What are three subcategories of dense connective tissue?
1. regular
2. irregular
3. elastic
65
what is the most abundant tissue type?
muscle, followed by connective
66
Skeletal muscle tissue:
1. function
2. found?
3. describe cells
Function: move or stabilize skeleton; guard entrances/exits to digestive, respirator & urinary tracts; generate heat; protect organs
Found: in skeletal muscles
Cells: long, cylindrical, banded (striated), multinucleated
67
Cardiac Muscle tissue
Function?
Found?
Describe cells
Function: blood movement and maintenance of blood pressure
Found: heart
Cells are cardiocytes: short, branched, striated, single nucleus, interconnected by intercalated discs
68
Smooth muscle tissue
Function?
Found?
Describe cells
Funciton: involuntary movement of food, feces, urine, blood, reproductive secretions
Found: skin, blood vessel walls, organs
cells: short, spindle shaped, non striated, single, central nucleus
69
What is the function of the neuroglia?
Support neural tissue; they protect, repair, maintain nutrients and structure
70
which cells are instrumental in mediating an inflammatory response when tissue is injured?
mast cells
71
What are the 6 functions of the integumentary system?
1. protect organs and tissue from many threats
2. excrete
3. Maintain temperature and fluid balance
4. produce/synthesize melanin, Vit D
5. Store lipids
6. detect various outer stimuli
72
Which features of the epidermis/dermis increases surface area for attachment of the epidermis to the dermis?
The ridges and papillae. Ridges are on the epidermis; papilla are on the dermis.
73
What are the layers of the epidermis in order of deep to superficial?
1. Stratum basale
2. stratum spinosum
3. stratum granulosum
4. stratum lucidum
5. stratum corneum
74
What is the most abundant cell type of the epidermis?
Keratinocyte. Produced by stem cells in the deepest layers and shed on the surface
75
Describe the stratum basale
Made up of basal stem cells; hemidesmosomes attach the cells to the basement membrane
76
Describe stratum spinosum
8-10 layers of keratinocyte and desmosomes. also contains dendritic immune cells
77
Describe stratum granulosum
3-5 layers of keratinocyte. the cells stop dividing at this level and start making keratin
78
Describe stratum lucidum
It is only found in thick skin
| These are flattened cells with keratin; here cells are dead or dying, organelles breaking down
79
describe stratum corneum
15-30 layers of keratinaized cells connected by desmosomes; water resistant
80
How much water do we lose to insensible perspiration daily?
500mL
81
What three factors affect skin color?
1. Pigments in the skin
2. Degree of dermal circulation
3. thickness and degree of keratinization of epidermis
82
What are two pigments found in the skin?
Melanin and carotene
83
How is melanin produced?
melanocytes make them from tyrosine and package them into vesicles (melanosomes) and transfer them to keratinocyte in upper layers.
84
How are darker skinned people different in terms of pigmentation?
Melanosomes are larger in these people so pigmentation last up to stratum granulosum
85
What is carotenemia?
Too much carotene in skin
86
What is albinism?
Deficiency or lack of melanin production; normal amount of melanocytes, they just don't produce.
87
How can cyanosis appear blue?
Hemoglobin without oxygen is dark red, but appears blue from the surface of the skin
88
How is blood supplied to the dermis and epidermis?
A network of blood vessels (sub papillary plexus) runs parallel and deep to the surface of the ridges and papillae; capillary loops extend toward them.
89
What is the most common type of skin cancer and why?
basal cell carcinoma. these cells are highly mitotic and therefore accumulate mutations at a higher rate. These cancers don't typically metastasize. Less common is malignant melanoma, which is more dangerous as it is more likely to metastasize quickly.
90
What are lines of cleavage?
Collagen and elastic fibers form parallel bundles based on the direction of force during movement. Cutting parallel to the cleavage lines prevents scarring.
91
What are the three layers of the dermis?
1. Papillary layer
2. Reticular layer
3. Hypodermis
92
Describe the papillary layer of the dermis
It is vascularized (subpapillary plexus) areolar tissue, it also contains lymphatic vessels and sensory neurons
93
Describe the reticular layer of the dermis
It is dense irregular tissue (deceiving from name!) and it contains the collagen and elastic fibers. The collagen extends to adjacent layers. There are also capillaries, lymphatic vessels, nerve fibers, and accessory structures here.
94
Describe the hypodermis layer
Not actually skin; this layer separates the skin from deeper structures and stabilizes while providing movement. Adipose tissue dominates here.
95
Give five types of sensory receptors in the skin (superficial to deep)
1. free nerve endings
2. tactile discs
3. Meissner's corpuscles
4. Lamellated corpuscles
5. Ruffini corpuscles
96
Name four causes of burns other than heat
1. friction
2. radiation
3. electrical shock
4. chemicals
97
What level of involvement (anatomically) is seen for each of the degrees of burning?
1. 1st degree: surface of epidermis
2. 2nd degree: all of epidermis and maybe some dermis (blistering)
3. Destroy epidermis and dermis (less painful but requires grafts)
98
Which three skin functions are affected by extensive burns?
1. fluid and electrolyte balance
2. thermoregulation
3. Protection from infection
99
contrast the terms: autograft/allograft/xenograft
Source of graft skin:
auto=self
allo=another person
xeno=animal source
100
What are three accessory skin structures?
hair follicles, exocrine glands, nails
101
What are two types of hair found on the human body?
```
Vellus hairs (fine hairs on body)
terminal hairs (scalp, armpits, etc)
```
102
Give the layers of the hair follicle structure from deep to superficial
Deep: Internal root sheath (produced from the hair matrix, surrounds the deep root)
External root sheath (epithelial cells that extend from the skin surface to the hair matrix)
Glassy membrane (Clear basement membrane)
Connective tissue sheath
103
What are the four steps of the hair growth cycle
1. Active phase
2. Follicle regression
3. Resting phase
4. follicle reactivation and growth of replacement hair
104
How is hair color derived?
The color comes from melanocytes in the hair's matrix
| White hair is caused by lack of pigment or the presence of air bubbles in the medulla.
105
Describe sebaceous glands and how do they function in conjunction to the hair follicle?
These are simple, branched alveolar holocrine glands. The lipids release from the glands into the lumen; the arrestor pili muscle contracts and squeezes sebum into hair follicle and eventually the cell surface.
106
Contrast merocrine and apocrine sweat glands
Apocrine: viscous secretion, hormonally influenced, released from mammaries, external ear, groin, armpits
Merocrine: These are a watery secretion controlled by the central nervous system for thermoregulation and antibacterial reasons. Myoepithelial cells contract to cause the discharge.
107
Look at the pictures of nail anatomy
Yay, you did it
108
Why should a PA care about a patient's fingernails?
They can be indicative of certain pathologies
109
How do hormones relate to integument?
Sex hormones influence distribution of subcutaneous adipose tissue.
Also, the integument responds to hormones to stimulate cell activity, repair, division, etc. Think Epidermis Growth Factor (EGF)
110
How does the skin aid in our Vit D/calcium absorption?
UV light causes skin to transform a steroid compound into cholecalciferol, which is then made into an intermediary product in the liver and then calcitriol in the kidney, where it stimulates the GI tract to absorb calcium and phosphate ions.
111
What are the four phases of integument repair?
Inflammatory phase: mast cells trigger inflammatory response
Migratory phase: Scab forms, macrophages clear debris and pathogens, cells rapidly divide and migrate to wound edges.
Proliferation Phase: Clot dissolves, fibroblasts make new collagen fibers and ground substance.
Scarring Phase: Scar tissue forms
112
What are keloids?
Raised masses of scar tissue when tissue formation continues beyond the requirements of tissue repair.
113
What are some of the effects of aging on the skin?
Fewer melanocytes, drier epidermis, thinning epidermis, diminished immune response, thinning dermis, decreased perspiration, reduced blood supply, slower skin repair, fewer active follicles, altered hair and fat distribution
