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Respiratory System Flashcards

1
Q

Pulmonary Ventilation

A

breathing, inhalation, exhalation. Exhange of air between atmosphere and pulmonary alveoli.

inhalation: o2 enter the lungs
exhalation:CO2 leave the lungs

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2
Q

External respiration

A

Gas exchange of the alveoli and the lungs. O2 will diffuse from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries. CO2 moves in the opposite direction.

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3
Q

internal respiration

A

exchange of gas between blood in systemic capillaries and tissue cells. O2 from systemic capillaries into tissue. CO2 opposite direction

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4
Q

Respiratory system

A

nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, brinchi, lungs

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5
Q

upper respiratory system

A

nose, nasal cavity,pharynx

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6
Q

lower respiratory system

A

larynx, trachea, bronchis, lungs

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7
Q

respiratory system 2 parts

A

conducting zone, respiratory zone

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8
Q

conducting zone

A

Cavities and tubes that filter, warm, and moisten air and conduct it to the lungs

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9
Q

respiratory zone

A

tissues, tubes within lungs where gas exchange occurs

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10
Q

Epiglottis

A

Covers opening of the larynx to prevent food and water from entering the trachea and into the esophagus

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11
Q

larynx

A

1.passageway for air between pharynx and trachea
2. vocal chords vibrate to produce sound

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12
Q

choana

A

Internal opening of the nasal passages leading to the pharynx. allows air to pass from the nasal cavity to the pharynx

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13
Q

olfactory epithelium

A

in the nasal cavity that has receptors to give you sense of smell

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14
Q

Nasal vestibule

A

External nose: The anterior portion of the nasal cavity. Made of cartilage

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15
Q

Vestibular folds

A

Vestibular folds, also known as false vocal cords, are a pair of folds in the larynx that protect the vocal folds and help prevent foreign objects from entering the airway. Close the airway

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16
Q

External nose

A

made up of cartilage, lines with mucus membrane. cartilaginous framework

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17
Q

Bony framework

A

Frontal bones, nasal bones, maxillae

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18
Q

Cartilaginous framework

A

lateral nasal cartilages, nasal septum c, minor alar c, major alar c

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19
Q

Internal nose

A

bony framework

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20
Q

Nasal Conchae and Meatuses

A

Conchaes, nasal septum. Has a lot of surface area to warm and moisten air coming in.

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21
Q

Pharynx

A

passageway for air and food., provides resonating chamber for speech sounds, and houses tonsils.

  1. nasopharynx
  2. oropharynx
    3, Laryngopharynx
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22
Q

thyroid cartilage

A

two fused plates of hyaline cartilage. anterior wall of the larynx

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23
Q

cricoid cartilage

A

ring of hyaline, forms inferior wall of the larynx.

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24
Q

cricothyroid ligament

A

collects the thyroid cartilage with the cricoid cartilage

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25
Q

Rings of cartilage

A

keeps air way pattened - never collapse. During an asthma attack, the smooth muscle in the esophagus cause it to contract closing it off.

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26
Q

Structures of voice production

A

Glottis: vocal folds, rima glottidis, vestibular folds.

When airflows to the glottis it causes the vocal folds to vibrate producing sound. Pitch is determined by the tension of the vocal folds. The folds abduct and adduct to control the pitch of the voice.

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27
Q

trachea (windpipe)

A

extends from the larynx to the primary bronchi. Secrete mucus and has cilia to trap and brush pathogens towards the throat.

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28
Q

Bronchi

A

Primary bronchi divide into 2 parts: 1. right primary bronchi
2. left primary bronchi.

Divide into Lobar bronchi

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29
Q

trachea to terminal bronchioles (end of conducting zone)

A

Trachea, main bronchi, lobar bronchi, segmental bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles

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30
Q

Identify all the parts of the lungs

A
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31
Q

lungs

A

paired organs in the thoracic cavity

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32
Q

what do we see as the branching in the bronchial tree increases

A
  1. The mucous membrane in the bronchial tree changes from ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium, to mostly cilated simple columnar E with some goblet cells, to ciliated simple cuboidal E.
  2. incomplete rings of cartilage to plates of cartilage, then disappear in the distal bronchioles
  3. cartilage decreases, smooth muscle increases
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33
Q

pleura

A
  1. superficial layer - parietal pleura
  2. pleura cavity - has serous fluid that reduces friction between membranes, allowing them to slide easily over one another during breathing
  3. visceral pleura - covers the lungs
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34
Q

Microscopic airways

A

Where pulmonary exchange occurs
1. respiratory bronchioles
2. alveolar ducts
3. alveolar sacs
4. alveoli

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35
Q

two types of alveolus epithelial cells

A

Pneumocyte I
Pneumocyte II

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36
Q

Pneumocyte I

A

Simple squamous E cells, form a continuous lining of the pulmonary alveolar wall. The main site for gas exchange.

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37
Q

Pneumocyte II (septal cells)

A

rounded or cuboidal cells that contain microvilli, and secrete pulmonary alveolar fluid which keeps the surface and the air moist.

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38
Q

surfactant

A

lowers surface tension which prevents alveoli from collapsing.

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39
Q

respiratory membrane

A

exchange of CO2 and O2 happens between the pulmonary alveolar and the capillary walls. The gases need to cross 2 layers of thin membranes.
consists of:
1. A layer of pneumocytes type I and type II and associated alveolar macrophages that constitutes the alveolar wall
2. An epithelial basement membrane underlying the pulmonary alveolar wall
3. A capillary basement membrane that is often fused to the epithelial basement membrane
4. The capillary endothelium

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40
Q

pulmonary circulation

A

blood enters the lung via pulmonary arteries, and exit the lungs via the pulmonary veins

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41
Q

ventilation-perfusion coupling

A

Vasoconstriction in respinse to hypoxia. the blood it diverted into places that have better ventilation

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42
Q

broncial circulation

A

part of the systemic circulation. blood enters the lungs via the bronchial arteries and exit the lungs via the bronchial veins. Like coronary circulation. Bring o2 rich blood fro the lungs and the veins take the deoxygenated blood away from the lungs.

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43
Q

Nasopharynx

A

ciliated psuedostratifies columnar cells. passgaeway for air, opening for auditory tubes, has pharyngeal tonsils

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44
Q

oropharynx

A

nonkeratinized stratified squamous cells. passageway for air and food and drink. Contains the opening for the mouth

45
Q

laryngopharynx

A

nonkeratanized stratified squamous cells. passageway for food, water, and air

46
Q

nasal vestibule

A

monkeratanized stratified squamous. has hair

47
Q

respiratory region

A

ciliated pseudostratified columnar. contains conchae and meatuses

48
Q

olfactory region

A

olfactory E. function in olfaction

49
Q

larynx

A

nonkeratinized stratifies squamous cells. above the vocal folds. Only above the vocal folds have cilia and goblet cells. passageway for ai and has vocal folds

50
Q

Trachea

A

ciliated pseudostratified columnar cells. passageway for air, c shaped rings that keep trachea open

51
Q

main bronchi

A

ciliated pseudostratified columnar passageway for air. has c shaped rings

52
Q

lobar bronchi

A

ciliated pseudostratified columnar. passage way for air and has cartilage plates

53
Q

segmental bronchi

A

ciliated pseudostratified columnar. passageway for air has cartilage plates

54
Q

larger bronchioles

A

ciliated simple columnar. passageway for air, contain more smooth muscle than in the bronchi

55
Q

smaller bronchioles

A

ciliated simple columnar, passageway for air, contain more SM than in the larger bronchioles

56
Q

terminal bronchioles

A

nonciliated simple columnar, passageway for air, contain more SM than the smaller bronchioles

57
Q

respiratory bronchioles

A

simple cuboidal to simple squamous, passageway for air and gas exchange

58
Q

pulmonary alveoli

A

passageway for air, gas exhange, produces surfactant to maintain patency

59
Q

pressure changes during pulmonary ventilation

A

Air moves into the pulmonary alveoli when the air pressure inside the lungs is less than the air in the atmosphere. Air moves out of the pulmonary alveoli when the air pressure inside the lungs is greater than the air pressure in the atmoshphere

60
Q

pulmonary ventilation

A

air flow btwn the atmosphere and the alveoli of the lungs because of the alternating pressure difference and the contraction/relaxation of the respiratory muscles

61
Q

boyles law

A

pressure and volume are inversely proportionate

62
Q

Muscles of inhalation and exhalation: Normal

A

diaphragm and the external intercostals

63
Q

forced exhalation muscles

A

Internal intercostals

Abdominal muscles:
-external abdominal oblique and rectus abdominis
-internal abdominal oblique
-transversus abdominis

These muscles contract which reduces the volume and increases the pressure in the abdomen and thorax.

64
Q

Inhalation

A

Diaphragm and external intercostals contract. The diagpharm become shorter meaning that their is more volume in the thorax and less in the abdomen. The external intercostals contract elevating the ribs increasing volume in the chest cavity. Now, there is less pressure in the lungs than in the atmosphere causing the air to rush in. During forced inhalation the scalene and the sternocleidomastoid expand the chest further

65
Q

forced inhalation muscles

A

scalene, sternocleidomastoid contract more to expand the chest further

66
Q

Exhalation

A

The diaphragm and the sternocleidomastoid relax. More volume in the abdomen and less in the thorax. the chest and lungs recoil and the chest cavity contracts. This is apassice process and no muscles contract. All it needs is the elastic recoil. Since the chest cavity got smaller, the pressure increases. Now there is more pressure in the lungs than in the atmosphere. This causes the air to rush out. During forced exhalation, internal intercostals and abdomen muscles contract further contracting the chest cavity.

67
Q

Surface tension

A

your alveoli is like a bubble. They are round and covered with a thin layer of alveolar fluid. Since the water in the fluid is polar, it creates tension in the air-water and the molecules are strongly attracted to each other. This causes a surface tension where there is an inwardly directed force causing them to burst. During breathing, surface tension must be overcome to expand the lungs during each inhalation. Accounts for two-thirds of lung elastic recoil.

68
Q

Compliance

A

Depends on elasticity and surface tension. Compliance refers to how much effort is required to stretch the lungs and chest walls. The lungs normally have high compliance and expand easily.
Decreased compliance is a common feature in pulmonary conditions that scar lung tissue (e.g., tuberculosis), causes lung tissue to become filled with fluid (pulmonary edema), produce a deficiency in surfactant, impede lung expansion in any way. Low compliance

68
Q

Elasticity

A

Normal exhalation results from elastic recoil of the chest wall and lungs. The recoil of elastic fibers decreases the size of the alveoli during expiration.

69
Q

Airway resistance

A

The rate of airflow depends on the pressure difference of the alveoli and the atmospheric pressure and the resistance of the airways.
• The resistance of an airway is inversely proportional to its diameter. **

70
Q

Eupnea

A

Normal quiet breathing

71
Q

Costal breathing

A

Shallow chest breathing. Upward and outward motion of the chest due to the external intercostals

72
Q

Diaphragmatic breathing

A

Outward movement of the abdomen due to the contraction and descent pf the diaphragm

73
Q

Lung capacity

A

Combinations of diff lung volumes inspiratory, vital, functional residual, total lung capacity.

74
Q

Lung volumes

A

Directly measured from spirometer:
- inspiratory
-expiratory
-tidal
-residual

75
Q

Tidal volume

A

Volume of one breath

76
Q

Inspiratory reserve volume

A

The extra inhaled air after a normal breath.

77
Q

Expiratory reserve volume

A

The extra air forcefully exhaled after a normal breath

78
Q

Residual volume

A

The air that remains even after forced exhalation. This extra air prevents the lungs from collapsing

79
Q

Inspiratory capacity

A

Tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume

80
Q

Functional residual capacity

A

Residual volume + expiratory reserve volume

81
Q

Vital capacity

A

Inspiratory reserve volume + tidal volume + expiratory reserve volume

82
Q

Total lung capacity

A

Vital capacity + residual volume

83
Q

Daltons law

A

All partial pressures of a gas are added up tgt to make up the atmosphere

E.g.,PAir =PN2 +PO2 +PAr =PH2O +PCO2 +Pothergases.

Each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own pressure as if no other
gases were present.

84
Q

Henrys law **

A

• The quantity of a gas that will dissolve in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas and its solubility coefficient when the temperature remains constant.
• E.g., In comparison to O2, much more CO2 is dissolved in blood plasma because the solubility of CO2 is 24 times greater than that of O2.

85
Q

Transport of O2

A

most o2 is carried by hemoglobin and some in the plasma

86
Q

transport of Co2

A

-most is transported as bicarbonate ions HCO 3-
-next is by hemoglobin RBC called carbaminohemoglobin
-some is dissolved in the plasma

87
Q

Factors Affecting the Affinity of Hb for
O2: Po2 (partial pressure of oxygen)

A

The more partial pressure of oxygen there is the more the hemoglobin will be saturated.

88
Q

fully saturated hemoglobin

A

when the Hb binds w four O2. When the PO2 is between 60 and 100 mmHg, hemoglobin is 90% or more saturated with O2 (Figure 23.19). Thus, blood picks up a nearly full load of O2 from the lungs even when the PO2 of alveolar air is as low as 60 mmHg.

89
Q

Partially saturated hemoglobin

A

when not all 4 O2 binds w the hemoglobin

90
Q

Factors Affecting the Affinity of Hb for
O2: pH

A

As acidity increases, pH number decreases, the affinity for hemoglobin decreases and 02 dissociates more readily from hemoglobin. The more acidic it is, the more O2 can be unloaded from the hemoglobin.

Basically the more basic the blood is which is higher than 7.4, hemoglobin binds better to the blood. When the blood is more acidic, oxygen can be unloaded more, meaning that there is less hemoglobin saturation in acidic blood.

91
Q

Factors Affecting the Affinity of Hb for
O2: partial pressure of CO2

A

The more PCO2 hemoglobin releases o2 more readily. This affect and pH are related cuz when the blood is acidic, it means that there is a lot of CO2 in the blood.

So acidic blood, and high PC02 unloads more oxygen from hemoglobin

92
Q

Factors Affecting the Affinity of Hb for
O2: Temperature

A

When temp increases more O2 releases.

93
Q

Factors Affecting the Affinity of Hb for
O2: BPG (2,3 Bisphosphoglycerate)

A

Found in Red Blood Cells. BPG increases the unloading of O2 from hemoglobin

94
Q

Oxygen Affinity of Fetal and Adult Hemoglobin

A

Fetal hemoglobin (Hb-F) has higher affinity for O2 since it binds to BPG less strongly. This is so the fetus doesn’t suffer from hypoxia

Adult hemoglobin (Hb-A) binds to BPG normally

95
Q

Gas Exchange and Transport in Lungs and Tissues

A

Summary of chemical reactions that occur during gas exchange. (a) As carbon dioxide (CO2) is exhaled, hemoglobin (Hb) inside red blood cells in pulmonary capillaries unloads CO2 and picks up O2 from pulmonary alveolar air. Binding of O2 to Hb–H releases hydrogen ions (H+). Bicarbonate ions (HCO3−) pass into the RBC and bind to released H+, forming carbonic acid (H2CO3). The H2CO3 dissociates into water (H2O) and CO2, and the CO2 diffuses from blood plasma into pulmonary alveolar air. To maintain electrical balance, a chloride ion (Cl−) exits the RBC for each HCO3− that enters (reverse chloride shift). (b) CO2 diffuses out of tissue cells that produce it and enters red blood cells, where some of it binds to hemoglobin, forming carbaminohemoglobin (Hb–CO2). This reaction causes O2 to dissociate from oxyhemoglobin (Hb–O2). Other molecules of CO2 combine with water to produce bicarbonate ions (HCO3−) and hydrogen ions (H+). As Hb buffers H+, the Hb releases O2 (Bohr effect). To maintain electrical balance, a chloride ion (Cl−) enters the RBC for each HCO3− that exits (chloride shift).

96
Q

Medullary Respiratory Center

A

Made up of the dorsal respiratory group (DRG) and the ventral respiratory group (VRG). During normal breathing the DRG generate impulses to the diaphragm via the phrenic nerves and the external intercostal muscles. When the nerve impulses reach the diaphragm, it causes the diaphragm and the external intercostals to contract, inhalation occurs. The DRG becomes inactive, which causes the muscles to relax allowing the lungs to recoil, and exhalation occurs. The VRG is like the pacemaker of the lungs. These cells maintain a rhythm for breathing. Mainly active during forced not as much during normal. The VRG also causes other muscles to contract during forced exhalation.

97
Q

DRG and VRG during normal Breathing

A

DRG: Active, sends impulses to the diaphargm and the external intercostals to contract them - inhale.
inactive - cause the muscles to recoil, relax - exhale

VRG present but not that much since normal breathing is passive therefore most of the rhythm is done by the DRG

98
Q

DRG and VRG during forced breathing

A

Inhalation:

DRG: contracts the external intercostals and the diaphragm.

VRG: trigger the accessory musices to contract. (scm, scalenes, pectoralis minor

Exhalation:

DRG cause the diaphragm and external intercostals to contract

VRG causes the abdominal muscles and the internal intercostals to contract

99
Q

Cortical influences

A

conscious control of respiration that may be needed to hold your breath like underwater or exposure to bad gass

100
Q

chemoreceptor

A

Central chemoreceptors: located in the medulla oblongata (in the brain). Respond to PCO2 and H concentration in the cerebrospinal fluid.

Peripheral chemoreceptors:
at the aortic and carotid bodies. Monitor levels of O2, CO2, H.

Both of these chemoreceptors provide input to the respiratory centers to trigger breathing to maintain homeostasis

101
Q

Which chemicals stimulate peripheral chemoreceptors?

A

An increase in arterial blood PCO2 stimulates the dorsal respiratory group (DRG).

102
Q

hypercapnia

A

slight increase on PCO2 meaning more H+ acidic, ph scale decreases. This causes a ton of oxygen in the hemoglobin to unload reducing the O2 saturation levels. When there is a severe deficiency of O2 it causes the DRG and central chemoreceptors to not monitor chemical levels that well thus not be able to contract breathing muscles.

To prevent this, the DRG becomes more active and the rate of breathing increases. causing hyperventilation.

stimulates central chemoreceptors and peripheral chemoreceptors

103
Q

hypoxia

A

oxygen deficiency at the tissue level. caused by low PO2 in the arterial blood due to:

-high altitude
-airway obstruction or fluid in the lungs

104
Q

Exercise and the Respiratory System

A

-cardiac output rises as well as the blood flow to the lungs (pulmonary perfusion) rises
-the O2 diffusing capacity may increase so that there is a greater surface area avail for O2 diffusion

105
Q

Aging and the Respiratory System

A

decreased: vital capacity, blood O2 levels, alveolar macrophage activity, ciliary action

elderly people are more susceptible to pneumonia, bronchitis, emphysema, and other issues

106
Q

Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances

A

all of these reduce respiratory capacity and affect the lungs.

107
Q

COVID

A

Severe accute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS)

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