Respiratory System Flashcards
1
Q
Pulmonary Ventilation
A
breathing, inhalation, exhalation. Exhange of air between atmosphere and pulmonary alveoli.
inhalation: o2 enter the lungs
exhalation:CO2 leave the lungs
2
Q
External respiration
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Gas exchange of the alveoli and the lungs. O2 will diffuse from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries. CO2 moves in the opposite direction.
3
Q
internal respiration
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exchange of gas between blood in systemic capillaries and tissue cells. O2 from systemic capillaries into tissue. CO2 opposite direction
4
Q
Respiratory system
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nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, brinchi, lungs
5
Q
upper respiratory system
A
nose, nasal cavity,pharynx
6
Q
lower respiratory system
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larynx, trachea, bronchis, lungs
7
Q
respiratory system 2 parts
A
conducting zone, respiratory zone
8
Q
conducting zone
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Cavities and tubes that filter, warm, and moisten air and conduct it to the lungs
9
Q
respiratory zone
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tissues, tubes within lungs where gas exchange occurs
10
Q
Epiglottis
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Covers opening of the larynx to prevent food and water from entering the trachea and into the esophagus
11
Q
larynx
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1.passageway for air between pharynx and trachea
2. vocal chords vibrate to produce sound
12
Q
choana
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Internal opening of the nasal passages leading to the pharynx. allows air to pass from the nasal cavity to the pharynx
13
Q
olfactory epithelium
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in the nasal cavity that has receptors to give you sense of smell
14
Q
Nasal vestibule
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External nose: The anterior portion of the nasal cavity. Made of cartilage
15
Q
Vestibular folds
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Vestibular folds, also known as false vocal cords, are a pair of folds in the larynx that protect the vocal folds and help prevent foreign objects from entering the airway. Close the airway
16
Q
External nose
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made up of cartilage, lines with mucus membrane. cartilaginous framework
17
Q
Bony framework
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Frontal bones, nasal bones, maxillae
18
Q
Cartilaginous framework
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lateral nasal cartilages, nasal septum c, minor alar c, major alar c
19
Q
Internal nose
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bony framework
20
Q
Nasal Conchae and Meatuses
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Conchaes, nasal septum. Has a lot of surface area to warm and moisten air coming in.
21
Q
Pharynx
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passageway for air and food., provides resonating chamber for speech sounds, and houses tonsils.
- nasopharynx
- oropharynx
3, Laryngopharynx
22
Q
thyroid cartilage
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two fused plates of hyaline cartilage. anterior wall of the larynx
23
Q
cricoid cartilage
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ring of hyaline, forms inferior wall of the larynx.
24
Q
cricothyroid ligament
A
collects the thyroid cartilage with the cricoid cartilage
25
Rings of cartilage
keeps air way pattened - never collapse. During an asthma attack, the smooth muscle in the esophagus cause it to contract closing it off.
26
Structures of voice production
Glottis: vocal folds, rima glottidis, vestibular folds.
When airflows to the glottis it causes the vocal folds to vibrate producing sound. Pitch is determined by the tension of the vocal folds. The folds abduct and adduct to control the pitch of the voice.
27
trachea (windpipe)
extends from the larynx to the primary bronchi. Secrete mucus and has cilia to trap and brush pathogens towards the throat.
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Bronchi
Primary bronchi divide into 2 parts: 1. right primary bronchi
2. left primary bronchi.
Divide into Lobar bronchi
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trachea to terminal bronchioles (end of conducting zone)
Trachea, main bronchi, lobar bronchi, segmental bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles
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Identify all the parts of the lungs
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lungs
paired organs in the thoracic cavity
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what do we see as the branching in the bronchial tree increases
1. The mucous membrane in the bronchial tree changes from ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium, to mostly cilated simple columnar E with some goblet cells, to ciliated simple cuboidal E.
2. incomplete rings of cartilage to plates of cartilage, then disappear in the distal bronchioles
3. cartilage decreases, smooth muscle increases
33
pleura
1. superficial layer - parietal pleura
2. pleura cavity - has serous fluid that reduces friction between membranes, allowing them to slide easily over one another during breathing
3. visceral pleura - covers the lungs
34
Microscopic airways
Where pulmonary exchange occurs
1. respiratory bronchioles
2. alveolar ducts
3. alveolar sacs
4. alveoli
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two types of alveolus epithelial cells
Pneumocyte I
Pneumocyte II
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Pneumocyte I
Simple squamous E cells, form a continuous lining of the pulmonary alveolar wall. The main site for gas exchange.
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Pneumocyte II (septal cells)
rounded or cuboidal cells that contain microvilli, and secrete pulmonary alveolar fluid which keeps the surface and the air moist.
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surfactant
lowers surface tension which prevents alveoli from collapsing.
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respiratory membrane
exchange of CO2 and O2 happens between the pulmonary alveolar and the capillary walls. The gases need to cross 2 layers of thin membranes.
consists of:
1. A layer of pneumocytes type I and type II and associated alveolar macrophages that constitutes the alveolar wall
2. An epithelial basement membrane underlying the pulmonary alveolar wall
3. A capillary basement membrane that is often fused to the epithelial basement membrane
4. The capillary endothelium
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pulmonary circulation
blood enters the lung via pulmonary arteries, and exit the lungs via the pulmonary veins
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ventilation-perfusion coupling
Vasoconstriction in respinse to hypoxia. the blood it diverted into places that have better ventilation
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broncial circulation
part of the systemic circulation. blood enters the lungs via the bronchial arteries and exit the lungs via the bronchial veins. Like coronary circulation. Bring o2 rich blood fro the lungs and the veins take the deoxygenated blood away from the lungs.
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Nasopharynx
ciliated psuedostratifies columnar cells. passgaeway for air, opening for auditory tubes, has pharyngeal tonsils
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oropharynx
nonkeratinized stratified squamous cells. passageway for air and food and drink. Contains the opening for the mouth
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laryngopharynx
nonkeratanized stratified squamous cells. passageway for food, water, and air
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nasal vestibule
monkeratanized stratified squamous. has hair
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respiratory region
ciliated pseudostratified columnar. contains conchae and meatuses
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olfactory region
olfactory E. function in olfaction
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larynx
nonkeratinized stratifies squamous cells. above the vocal folds. Only above the vocal folds have cilia and goblet cells. passageway for ai and has vocal folds
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Trachea
ciliated pseudostratified columnar cells. passageway for air, c shaped rings that keep trachea open
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main bronchi
ciliated pseudostratified columnar passageway for air. has c shaped rings
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lobar bronchi
ciliated pseudostratified columnar. passage way for air and has cartilage plates
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segmental bronchi
ciliated pseudostratified columnar. passageway for air has cartilage plates
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larger bronchioles
ciliated simple columnar. passageway for air, contain more smooth muscle than in the bronchi
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smaller bronchioles
ciliated simple columnar, passageway for air, contain more SM than in the larger bronchioles
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terminal bronchioles
nonciliated simple columnar, passageway for air, contain more SM than the smaller bronchioles
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respiratory bronchioles
simple cuboidal to simple squamous, passageway for air and gas exchange
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pulmonary alveoli
passageway for air, gas exhange, produces surfactant to maintain patency
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pressure changes during pulmonary ventilation
Air moves into the pulmonary alveoli when the air pressure inside the lungs is less than the air in the atmosphere. Air moves out of the pulmonary alveoli when the air pressure inside the lungs is greater than the air pressure in the atmoshphere
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pulmonary ventilation
air flow btwn the atmosphere and the alveoli of the lungs because of the alternating pressure difference and the contraction/relaxation of the respiratory muscles
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boyles law
pressure and volume are inversely proportionate
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Muscles of inhalation and exhalation: Normal
diaphragm and the external intercostals
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forced exhalation muscles
Internal intercostals
Abdominal muscles:
-external abdominal oblique and rectus abdominis
-internal abdominal oblique
-transversus abdominis
These muscles contract which reduces the volume and increases the pressure in the abdomen and thorax.
64
Inhalation
Diaphragm and external intercostals contract. The diagpharm become shorter meaning that their is more volume in the thorax and less in the abdomen. The external intercostals contract elevating the ribs increasing volume in the chest cavity. Now, there is less pressure in the lungs than in the atmosphere causing the air to rush in. During forced inhalation the scalene and the sternocleidomastoid expand the chest further
65
forced inhalation muscles
scalene, sternocleidomastoid contract more to expand the chest further
66
Exhalation
The diaphragm and the sternocleidomastoid relax. More volume in the abdomen and less in the thorax. the chest and lungs recoil and the chest cavity contracts. This is apassice process and no muscles contract. All it needs is the elastic recoil. Since the chest cavity got smaller, the pressure increases. Now there is more pressure in the lungs than in the atmosphere. This causes the air to rush out. During forced exhalation, internal intercostals and abdomen muscles contract further contracting the chest cavity.
67
Surface tension
your alveoli is like a bubble. They are round and covered with a thin layer of alveolar fluid. Since the water in the fluid is polar, it creates tension in the air-water and the molecules are strongly attracted to each other. This causes a surface tension where there is an inwardly directed force causing them to burst. During breathing, surface tension must be overcome to expand the lungs during each inhalation. Accounts for two-thirds of lung elastic recoil.
68
Compliance
Depends on elasticity and surface tension. Compliance refers to how much effort is required to stretch the lungs and chest walls. The lungs normally have high compliance and expand easily.
Decreased compliance is a common feature in pulmonary conditions that scar lung tissue (e.g., tuberculosis), causes lung tissue to become filled with fluid (pulmonary edema), produce a deficiency in surfactant, impede lung expansion in any way. Low compliance
68
Elasticity
Normal exhalation results from elastic recoil of the chest wall and lungs. The recoil of elastic fibers decreases the size of the alveoli during expiration.
69
Airway resistance
The rate of airflow depends on the pressure difference of the alveoli and the atmospheric pressure and the resistance of the airways.
• The resistance of an airway is inversely proportional to its diameter. ****
70
Eupnea
Normal quiet breathing
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Costal breathing
Shallow chest breathing. Upward and outward motion of the chest due to the external intercostals
72
Diaphragmatic breathing
Outward movement of the abdomen due to the contraction and descent pf the diaphragm
73
Lung capacity
Combinations of diff lung volumes inspiratory, vital, functional residual, total lung capacity.
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Lung volumes
Directly measured from spirometer:
- inspiratory
-expiratory
-tidal
-residual
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Tidal volume
Volume of one breath
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Inspiratory reserve volume
The extra inhaled air after a normal breath.
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Expiratory reserve volume
The extra air forcefully exhaled after a normal breath
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Residual volume
The air that remains even after forced exhalation. This extra air prevents the lungs from collapsing
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Inspiratory capacity
Tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume
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Functional residual capacity
Residual volume + expiratory reserve volume
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Vital capacity
Inspiratory reserve volume + tidal volume + expiratory reserve volume
82
Total lung capacity
Vital capacity + residual volume
83
Daltons law
All partial pressures of a gas are added up tgt to make up the atmosphere
E.g.,PAir =PN2 +PO2 +PAr =PH2O +PCO2 +Pothergases.
Each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own pressure as if no other
gases were present.
84
Henrys law ****
• The quantity of a gas that will dissolve in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas and its solubility coefficient when the temperature remains constant.
• E.g., In comparison to O2, much more CO2 is dissolved in blood plasma because the solubility of CO2 is 24 times greater than that of O2.
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Transport of O2
most o2 is carried by hemoglobin and some in the plasma
86
transport of Co2
-most is transported as bicarbonate ions HCO 3-
-next is by hemoglobin RBC called carbaminohemoglobin
-some is dissolved in the plasma
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Factors Affecting the Affinity of Hb for
O2: Po2 (partial pressure of oxygen)
The more partial pressure of oxygen there is the more the hemoglobin will be saturated.
88
fully saturated hemoglobin
when the Hb binds w four O2. When the PO2 is between 60 and 100 mmHg, hemoglobin is 90% or more saturated with O2 (Figure 23.19). Thus, blood picks up a nearly full load of O2 from the lungs even when the PO2 of alveolar air is as low as 60 mmHg.
89
Partially saturated hemoglobin
when not all 4 O2 binds w the hemoglobin
90
Factors Affecting the Affinity of Hb for
O2: pH
As acidity increases, pH number decreases, the affinity for hemoglobin decreases and 02 dissociates more readily from hemoglobin. The more acidic it is, the more O2 can be unloaded from the hemoglobin.
Basically the more basic the blood is which is higher than 7.4, hemoglobin binds better to the blood. When the blood is more acidic, oxygen can be unloaded more, meaning that there is less hemoglobin saturation in acidic blood.
91
Factors Affecting the Affinity of Hb for
O2: partial pressure of CO2
The more PCO2 hemoglobin releases o2 more readily. This affect and pH are related cuz when the blood is acidic, it means that there is a lot of CO2 in the blood.
So acidic blood, and high PC02 unloads more oxygen from hemoglobin
92
Factors Affecting the Affinity of Hb for
O2: Temperature
When temp increases more O2 releases.
93
Factors Affecting the Affinity of Hb for
O2: BPG (2,3 Bisphosphoglycerate)
Found in Red Blood Cells. BPG increases the unloading of O2 from hemoglobin
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Oxygen Affinity of Fetal and Adult Hemoglobin
Fetal hemoglobin (Hb-F) has higher affinity for O2 since it binds to BPG less strongly. This is so the fetus doesn't suffer from hypoxia
Adult hemoglobin (Hb-A) binds to BPG normally
95
Gas Exchange and Transport in Lungs and Tissues
Summary of chemical reactions that occur during gas exchange. (a) As carbon dioxide (CO2) is exhaled, hemoglobin (Hb) inside red blood cells in pulmonary capillaries unloads CO2 and picks up O2 from pulmonary alveolar air. Binding of O2 to Hb–H releases hydrogen ions (H+). Bicarbonate ions (HCO3−) pass into the RBC and bind to released H+, forming carbonic acid (H2CO3). The H2CO3 dissociates into water (H2O) and CO2, and the CO2 diffuses from blood plasma into pulmonary alveolar air. To maintain electrical balance, a chloride ion (Cl−) exits the RBC for each HCO3− that enters (reverse chloride shift). (b) CO2 diffuses out of tissue cells that produce it and enters red blood cells, where some of it binds to hemoglobin, forming carbaminohemoglobin (Hb–CO2). This reaction causes O2 to dissociate from oxyhemoglobin (Hb–O2). Other molecules of CO2 combine with water to produce bicarbonate ions (HCO3−) and hydrogen ions (H+). As Hb buffers H+, the Hb releases O2 (Bohr effect). To maintain electrical balance, a chloride ion (Cl−) enters the RBC for each HCO3− that exits (chloride shift).
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Medullary Respiratory Center
Made up of the dorsal respiratory group (DRG) and the ventral respiratory group (VRG). During normal breathing the DRG generate impulses to the diaphragm via the phrenic nerves and the external intercostal muscles. When the nerve impulses reach the diaphragm, it causes the diaphragm and the external intercostals to contract, inhalation occurs. The DRG becomes inactive, which causes the muscles to relax allowing the lungs to recoil, and exhalation occurs. The VRG is like the pacemaker of the lungs. These cells maintain a rhythm for breathing. Mainly active during forced not as much during normal. The VRG also causes other muscles to contract during forced exhalation.
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DRG and VRG during normal Breathing
DRG: Active, sends impulses to the diaphargm and the external intercostals to contract them - inhale.
inactive - cause the muscles to recoil, relax - exhale
VRG present but not that much since normal breathing is passive therefore most of the rhythm is done by the DRG
98
DRG and VRG during forced breathing
Inhalation:
DRG: contracts the external intercostals and the diaphragm.
VRG: trigger the accessory musices to contract. (scm, scalenes, pectoralis minor
Exhalation:
DRG cause the diaphragm and external intercostals to contract
VRG causes the abdominal muscles and the internal intercostals to contract
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Cortical influences
conscious control of respiration that may be needed to hold your breath like underwater or exposure to bad gass
100
chemoreceptor
Central chemoreceptors: located in the medulla oblongata (in the brain). Respond to PCO2 and H concentration in the cerebrospinal fluid.
Peripheral chemoreceptors:
at the aortic and carotid bodies. Monitor levels of O2, CO2, H.
Both of these chemoreceptors provide input to the respiratory centers to trigger breathing to maintain homeostasis
101
Which chemicals stimulate peripheral chemoreceptors?
An increase in arterial blood PCO2 stimulates the dorsal respiratory group (DRG).
102
hypercapnia
slight increase on PCO2 meaning more H+ acidic, ph scale decreases. This causes a ton of oxygen in the hemoglobin to unload reducing the O2 saturation levels. When there is a severe deficiency of O2 it causes the DRG and central chemoreceptors to not monitor chemical levels that well thus not be able to contract breathing muscles.
To prevent this, the DRG becomes more active and the rate of breathing increases. causing hyperventilation.
stimulates central chemoreceptors and peripheral chemoreceptors
103
hypoxia
oxygen deficiency at the tissue level. caused by low PO2 in the arterial blood due to:
-high altitude
-airway obstruction or fluid in the lungs
104
Exercise and the Respiratory System
-cardiac output rises as well as the blood flow to the lungs (pulmonary perfusion) rises
-the O2 diffusing capacity may increase so that there is a greater surface area avail for O2 diffusion
105
Aging and the Respiratory System
decreased: vital capacity, blood O2 levels, alveolar macrophage activity, ciliary action
elderly people are more susceptible to pneumonia, bronchitis, emphysema, and other issues
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Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances
all of these reduce respiratory capacity and affect the lungs.
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COVID
Severe accute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS)
