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CH22 Flashcards

1
Q

what are pathogens?

A

disease-producing microbes such as bacteria and viruses

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2
Q

what is immunity?

A

resistance

The state of being resistant to injury, particularly by poisons, foreign proteins, and invading pathogens through the body’s defenses

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3
Q

what are the two general types of immunity?

A

1) innate immunity
2) adaptive immunity

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4
Q

what is innate immunity?

A

-defenses that are present at birth and acts against all microbes in the -same way
-non -specific
1. skin and mucous membranes
2. internal defenses

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5
Q

what is adaptive immunity?

A

defenses that involve specific recognition of a microbe once it has breached the innate immunity defenses

based on a specific response to a specific microbe

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6
Q

what is lymph plasma?

A

clear, pale-yellow fluid confined in lymph vessels and flowing through the lymphoid system until it is returned to the blood

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7
Q

what is the function of the lymphatic system?

A

assists in circulating body fluids and helps defend the body against disease-causing agents

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8
Q

why do interstitial fluid and lymph plasma contain less protein than blood plasma?

A

most blood plasma protein molecules are too large to filter through the capillary wall, so most remain in cardiovascular system

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9
Q

what is lymphoid tissue?

A

specialized form of reticular connective tissue that contains large numbers of lymphocytes

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10
Q

what are the primary functions of the lymphatic system?

A

1) Drains excess interstitial fluid Lymphatic vessels drain excess interstitial fluid from tissue spaces and return it to the blood

2) Transports dietary lipids Lymphatic vessels transport lipids and lipid-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) absorbed by the digestive canal

3) Carries out immune responses Lymphoid tissue initiates highly specific responses directed against microbes or abnormal cells

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11
Q

how are lymphatic vessels different from veins?

A
  • thinner walls
  • more valves
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12
Q

what are lymph nodes?

A

encapsulated bean-shaped organs consisting of masses of B cells and T cells

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13
Q

how are lymphatic capillaries different from blood capillaries?

A
  • greater permeability: can absorb large molecules such as proteins, microbes, and lipids
  • slightly larger in diameter
  • one-way structure that permits interstitial fluid to flow into them but not out
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14
Q

what is the one-way structure of lymphatic capillaries?

A

coming in The ends of endothelial cells that make up the wall of a lymphatic capillary overlap. When pressure is greater in the interstitial fluid than in lymph plasma, the cells separate slightly, like the opening of a one-way swinging door, and interstitial fluid enters the lymphatic capillary.

cannot come out When pressure is greater inside the lymphatic capillary, the cells adhere more closely, and lymph plasma cannot escape back into interstitial fluid.

The pressure is relieved as lymph plasma moves further down the lymphatic capillary

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15
Q

what is the function of anchoring filaments?

A

They extend out from the lymphatic capillary, attaching lymphatic endothelial cells to surrounding tissues.

When excess interstitial fluid accumulates and causes tissue swelling, the anchoring filaments are pulled, making the openings between cells even larger so that more fluid can flow into the lymphatic capillary.

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16
Q

what are lacteals?

A

specialized lymphatic capillaries in small intestine that carry dietary lipids into lymphatic vessels and ultimately into the blood

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17
Q

what is chyle?

A

The milky‐appearing fluid found in the lacteals of the small intestine after absorption of lipids in food

The presence of these lipids causes the lymph plasma draining from the small intestine to appear creamy white

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18
Q

why do proteins that do leave blood plasma cannot return to the blood by diffusion?

A

the concentration gradient (high level of blood plasma proteins inside blood capillaries, low level outside) opposes such movement

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19
Q

how do lymphatic vessels return the lost blood plasma proteins to the bloodstream?

A

The lost blood plasma proteins can move readily through the more permeable lymphatic capillaries into lymph plasma

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20
Q

what is the sequence of fluid flow from lost blood plasma back to t circulation?

A

blood capillaries (blood) → interstitial spaces (interstitial fluid) → lymphatic capillaries (lymph plasma) → lymphatic vessels (lymph plasma) → lymphatic trunks or ducts (lymph plasma) → junction of the internal jugular and subclavian veins (blood)

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21
Q

what are the two “pumps” that aid the return of venous blood to the heart maintain the flow of lymph plasma?

A

1) Respiratory pump Lymph plasma flow is also maintained by pressure changes that occur during inhalation. Lymph flows from the abdominal region, where the pressure is higher, toward the thoracic region, where it is lower. When the pressures reverse during exhalation, the valves in lymphatic vessels prevent backflow of lymph. when a lymphatic vessel distends, the smooth muscle in its wall contracts, which helps move lymph plasma from one segment of the vessel to the next

2) Skeletal muscle pump skeletal muscle contractions compresses lymphatic vessels (as well as veins) and forces lymph plasma toward the junction of the internal jugular and subclavian veins

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22
Q

what are primary lymphoid organs?

A

sites where stem cells divide and become immunocompetent

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23
Q

what do multipotent stem cells in red bone marrow give rise to?

A
  • mature, immunocompetent B cells
  • pre-T cells
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24
Q

what do pre-T cells in thymus give rise to?

A

immunocompetent T cells

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25
Q

what is immunocompetence?

A

capable of mounting an immune response

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26
Q

what are secondary lymphoid organs?

A

sites where most immune responses occur

  • lymph nodes
  • spleen
  • lymphoid nodules (tissues instead of organs)
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27
Q

what are lymphatic ducts?

A

ducts that empty lymph plasma into junction of jugular and subclavian veins

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28
Q

what is the thymus?

A

A bilobed organ, located in the superior mediastinum posterior to the sternum and between the lungs, in which T cells develop immunocompetence

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29
Q

what is the thymus’s cortex?

A

outer layer of thymus composed of large numbers of T cells and scattered nodular dendritic cells, epithelial cells, and macrophages

pre-T cells migrate from RBM to cortex, where they proliferate and mature

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30
Q

what are nodular dendritic cells?

A

derived from monocytes and assists the maturation process of pre-T cells

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31
Q

what is the function of the specialized epithelial cells in the thymic cortex?

A
  • undergo positive selection for pre-T cells
  • produce thymic hormones that are thought to aid in the maturation of T cells
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32
Q

what is the thymus’s medulla?

A

inner term of thymus that consists of widely scattered, more mature T cells, epithelial cells, nodular dendritic cells, and macrophages

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33
Q

what are thymic corpuscles?

A

clusters of some epithelial cells that become arranged into concentric layers of flat cells that degenerate and become filled with keratohyalin granules and keratin

may serve as sites of T cell death in the medulla

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34
Q

what happens to T cells that mature and leave the thymus?

A

T cells that leave the thymus via the blood migrate to lymph nodes, the spleen, and other lymphatic tissues, where they colonize parts of these organs and tissues

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35
Q

what is thymic involution?

A

functional portion of the gland is reduced considerably because adipose and areolar connective tissue
begin to replace the thymic tissue

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36
Q

what happens right before the thymus atrophies?

A

populates the secondary lymphoid organs and tissues with T cells.

some T cells continue to proliferate in the thymus throughout an individual’s lifetime, but this number decreases with age.

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37
Q

what is the function of trabeculae in lymph nodes?

A

divide the node into compartments, provide support, and provide a route for blood vessels into the interior of a node

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38
Q

what is the function of the stroma of a lymph node?

A

provides a supporting framework for lymph nodes

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39
Q

what is the parenchyma of a lymph node?

A

the cortex and medulla of the lymph node

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40
Q

what are lymphoid nodules?

A

egg-shaped aggregates of B cells within outer cortex. no capsule

41
Q

Lymphatic Sytem

A

consists of lymphatic tissue, bone marrow, lymph plasma that flows through lymph vessels

42
Q

lymph.. capillaries

A

-merge to form vessels
-closed at one end and doesn’t loop

43
Q

spleen

A

-connected to the circulatory system
-filters blood
-white pulp, WBC filters blood
-red pulp, engulfs dead red blood cells

44
Q

Mechanical Defenses

A

skin, mucous membranes, tears, saliva, mucus, cillia, epiglotties, urine flow,, defecating, vomitting

45
Q

chemical defenses

A

sebum, lysosome,gastric juice

46
Q

Internal defenses

A

antimicrobial proteins, phagocytosis, NK cells, inflamtion, fever
-non -specific, kill everything

47
Q

Histamines

A

released by mast cells, trigger inflamation

48
Q

antigens

A

substances that are recognized by your body to provoke an immune response by your body

49
Q

autoantigens

A

pruduced by your own body that causes your body to attack itself. usually don’t worry. Autoantigens are proteins, DNA, or RNA molecules that are normally part of the body but are mistakenly attacked by the immune system.

50
Q

immunogenicity

A

abilioty of the antigen to provoke an immune response

51
Q

reactivity

A

abaility of the antigen to react with the antibodies or cells

52
Q

antibody-mediated immunity

A

b-lymphocytes - these release antibodies.
Directed against extracellular pathogens.

53
Q

Intracellular Pathogen

A

can survive after being ingested by host cell. The foreign thing still lives even after getting eaten

54
Q

Extracellular pathogens

A

Cant survive after being eaten

55
Q

helper t cells

A

always get activated first in adaptive immunity

56
Q

What do t - cells mature into

A

cytotoxic t cells and helper t cells

57
Q

cytotoxic t cells

A

A type of immune cell that can kill certain cells, including foreign cells, cancer cells, and cells infected with a virus.

58
Q

Helper t -cells

A

Helper T cells help the body fight infection by detecting infections, activating other immune cells, and producing cytokines and chemokines

59
Q

CD proteins

A

Glycoproteins that help recognize and adhere to pathogens. They help activate t cells

60
Q

epitopes

A

parts of an antigen that trigger an immune response (part that binds w an antibody). The body responds by producing lymphocytes to target each epitope

61
Q

How b cells recognize antigen

A

b cells can flow through the plasma and as long as they are near an antigen, they can recognize and bind to it.

62
Q

How do t cells recognize antigen

A

Must be attached to MCH protein, or antigen presenting cells (apc), or on host cells

63
Q

Pathways of antigen processing

A

antigenic proteins are broken down into peptide fragments to associate with MHC molecules. Before the antigen is presented to a t cell, the antigen is broken down into antigenic proteins that can attach to MHC proteins. Now, a t cell can recognise the antigen and destroy it.

64
Q

Exogenous Antigen Processing

A

Basically a pathogen is living its life outside of the cells replicating and hurting you. An antigen presenting cell sees it and is like wait, your not part of this body. So the APC eats it up and breaks down the antigen into peptide proteins. These peptide proteins can now attach to the MHC II molecule. So, another vesicle combines w the peptide proteins and they bind tgt, forming an antigen - MCH - II complex. The vesicle then goes through excotyosis and the complex is inserted into the plasma membrane. Now a t-cell can recognize it and attack!

65
Q

Endogenous Antigen Processing

A

This antigen infiltrates body cells to live and replicate. The body cell is sick and needs to suicide so the rest of the body isn’t hurt. So, the body cell digests the antigen into peptide fragments. These fragments inter a vesicle that has MCH I proteins. The peptide fragments and MCH I protein bind to form an antigen MCH I complex. The vesicle now goes through exocytosis and inserts into the plasma membrane where a T-cell can recognize and attack.

66
Q

Cytokines

A

small protein hormones that stimulate the proliferation of lymphocytes. They are mostly produced by t cells. Tumor necrosis factor is produced my macrophages

67
Q

Interleukin 1

A

cause fever

68
Q

interleukin 2

A

costimulates everything (b cells, t cells, Nk cells

69
Q

What activates b cell sytem?

A

Interleukin 4, 5, 6

70
Q

interleukin 4

A

costimulates b cells

71
Q

interleukin 5

A

co stimulates b cells

72
Q

interleukin 6

A

enhances b cell proliferation and differentiation

73
Q

Which cytokines are inhibitors?

A

interferons (viral replication)
Macrophage migration

74
Q

cell mediated immunity

A
  1. APC or host cell presents antigen to specific t cell
  2. t cell proliferates and differentiates into clones. Can be CD4 or CD8 t cells
    3.Effector cells act to clear the infection
  3. antigen is eliminated
75
Q

Activation and clonal selection of helper t cells

A

The APC cell presents the antigen to a helper t cell. In response, the helper cell recognizes the antigen and starts replicating. This army of helper cells produces specific cytokines to aid a certain type of immune response

76
Q

Activation and clonal selection of cytotoxic t-cells

A

Same start but now the APC is recognized by a cytotoxic cell. This causes the replication of these t cells. Helper t cells also release cytokines to co-stimulate, specifically interleukin 2.

77
Q

Activity of cytotoxic t cells

A

Release granzymes that cause apoptosis (cell death) then the carcass is eaten by a phagocyte.
Or perforin released which popes holes into the infected body cell and granulysin released to destroy microbes.

78
Q

Granzymes

A

apoptosis - cell death

79
Q

granulysin

A

destroys microbes

80
Q

Antibody mediated immunity

A
  1. antigen recognized by b cell or MCH - II body cell.
  2. Eat it up now an APC and present it to a helper t cell.
  3. Helper t cell costimulates the cell to proliferate and differentiate into clones of the b cell.
  4. B cells release antibodies to eliminate antigens by neutralizing, immobilizing, agglutinating, activating complements, enhancing phagocytosis.
81
Q

IgG

A

2 Epitomes. Most abundant. Only class of antibody that can pass the placenta from mother to fetus.

82
Q

IgA

A

4 epitomes. found mostly in sweat, breast milk, tears, saliva, mucus, and digestive secretions

83
Q

igM

A

multiple epitomes. All antibodies in the blood plasma. Doesn’t cross the placenta which is why mother antibodies don’t attack baby antigens unless Rh. mostly found on surfaces of b cells as antigen receptors

84
Q

igE

A

On basophils and macrophages. involved in allergic reactions.

85
Q

Compliment Activation and Results

A

Innate response. Helps during phagocytosis. When a pathogen is being eaten, complemented proteins come in form tunnels and create many holes in the pathogen. This makes the pathogen to be easier to eat.

86
Q

Immunological Memory

A

Some b and t cells dont fight off the infection and just say dormant for many years. That way, when encountered by the same pathogen, the body can produce antibodies (IgG) quicker and faster.

87
Q

primary response

A

This is the first exposure to the pathogen.

88
Q

Secondary response

A

Encountering the same pathogen. Antibody (igG) production increases significantly and is so much faster.

89
Q

Naturally acquired active immunity

A

exposure to antigen

90
Q

Naturally acquired passive immunity

A

igG antibodies are transferred from mother to fetus. IgG antibodies are transferred during breast feeding.

91
Q

Artificially acquired active immunity

A

vaccination stimulates cell-mediated and antibody-mediates immune responses leading to a PRODUCTION IN MEMORY CELLS.

92
Q

Artificially acquired passive immunity

A

antibodies are injected

93
Q

T cell self recognition and self torelance

A

t cells undergo postitive and negative selection to make sure that the t cells can recognize body MHC molecules. If it does then negative selection, removing the t cell

94
Q

B cell self regulation and self tolerance

A

b cells develop tolerance through deletion and anergy

95
Q

APCs

A

macrophage, dendritic cells, b cells

96
Q

Stress and immunity

A

cortisol a hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex, inhibits immune system activity.

97
Q

Allergies

A

when a person is overly reactive to a substance that is well tolerated by most others

98
Q

Types of hypersensitivity reaction

A

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