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Anatomy 2 > Respiratory System > Flashcards

Respiratory System Flashcards

1
Q

cells produce energy

A

for maintenance, growth, defense, and division
through mechanisms that use oxygen and produce carbon dioxide

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2
Q

oxygen

A

is obtained from the air by diffusion across delicate exchange surfaces of lungs
is carried to cells by the cardiovascular system which also returns carbon dioxide to the lungs

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3
Q

functions of the respiratory system

A

external respiration
acid-base balance
produces sounds for communication
provide olfactory sensation=smell
blood pressure regulation (synthesis of Angiotensin 2)
protects respiratory surfaces from outside environment

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4
Q

external respiration

A

provides extensive gas exchange surface area between air and circulating blood (O2 and CO2)

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5
Q

acid-base balance

A

influences pH of body fluids by elimination of CO2

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6
Q

protects respiratory surfaces from outside environment

A

dehydration, temperature changes, invasion by pathogens

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7
Q

principal organs of the respiratory system

A

nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs

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8
Q

the respiratory system is divided into

A

the upper respiratory system, above the larynx
the lower respiratory system, from the larynx down

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9
Q

upper respiratory system

A

function to warm and humidify air
nose, nasal cavity, sinuses, pharynx- naso, oro and laryngo

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10
Q

lower respiratory system

A

conduction portion and respiratory portion

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11
Q

conduction portion

A

bring air to respiratory surfaces
larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles

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12
Q

respiratory portion

A

gas exchange
alveoli

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13
Q

alveoli

A

are air-filled pockets within the lungs
where all gas exchange takes place

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14
Q

the respiratory mucosa

A

consists of an epithelial layer and an areolar layer called the lamina propria
lines the conducting portion of respiratory system

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15
Q

structure of respiratory epithelium

A

pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with numerous mucous cells- nasal cavity and superior portion of the pharynx
stratified squamous epithelium- inferior portions of the pharynx
pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium- superior portion of the lower respiratory system
cuboidal epithelium with scattered cilia- smaller bronchioles

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16
Q

alveolar epithelium

A

is a very delicate, simple squamous epithelium
contains scattered and specialized cells
lines exchange surfaces of alveoli

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17
Q

lamina propria

A

underlying layer of areolar tissue that supports the respiratory epithelium
in the upper respiratory system, trachea, and bronchi- it contains mucous glands that secret onto epithelial surface
in the conducting portion of lower respiratory system- it contains smooth muscle cells that encircle lumen of bronchioles

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18
Q

the respiratory defense system

A

consists of a series of filtration mechanisms
removes particles and pathogens

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19
Q

components of the respiratory defense system

A
  1. filtration in nasal cavity removes large particles
  2. mucus- from goblet cells and glands in lamina propria traps foreign objects
  3. cilia “mucus escalator”- move carpet of mucus with trapped debris out of the respiratory tract
  4. alveolar macrophages- phagocyte particles that reach alveoli
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20
Q

disorders of the respiratory defense system

A
  1. cystic fibrosis caused by failure of mucus escalator, results in thick mucus which blocks airways and encourages bacteria growth
  2. smoking-> destroys cilia
  3. inhalation of irritation-> chronic inflammation-> cancer e.g. squamous cell carcinoma
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21
Q

the nose

A

only external feature
air enters the respiratory system through external nares into nasal vestibule
space in flexible part, lined with hairs to filter particles, leads to nasal cavity
nasal hairs in nasal vestibule are the first particle filtration system

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22
Q

the nasal cavity

A

the nasal septum divides nasal cavity into left and right
superior portion of nasal cavity is the olfactory epithelium-> provides sense of smell
nasal conchae (superior, middle, inferior) project into cavity on both sides
hard and soft palate
air flow-> nasal cavity opens into nasopharynx through internal nares

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23
Q

nasal conchae

A

causes air to swirl
1. increase likelihood of trapping foreign material in mucus
2. provide time for smell detection
3. provide time and contact to warm and humidify air

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24
Q

hard palate

A

forms floor of nasal cavity
separates nasal and oral cavities

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25
Q

soft palate

A

extends posterior to hard palate
divides superior nasopharynx from lower pharynx

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26
Q

nose and nasal cavity

A

opening airway for respiration
moisten and warm entering air
filter and clean inspired air
resonating chamber for speech
houses olfactory receptors

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27
Q

the pharynx

A

a chamber shared by digestive and respiratory systems
extends from internal nares to entrances to larynx and esophagus
three parts: nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx

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28
Q

nasopharynx

A

air only
posterior to nasal cavity
pseudostratified squamous columnar epithelium
closed off by soft palate and uvula during swallowing
pharyngeal tonsil located on posterior wall
inflammation can block airway
auditory tubes open here

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29
Q

oropharynx

A

food and air
posterior to oral cavity
stratified squamous epithelium
palatine and lingual tonsils in mucosa

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30
Q

laryngopharynx

A

lower portion
stratified squamous epithelium
continuous with esophagus

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31
Q

air flow from the pharynx enters

A

the larynx

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32
Q

what is the larynx

A

a hyaline cartilage structure that surrounds the glottis
opening form laryngopharynx to trachea
contains epiglottis- elastic cartilage flap-> covers glottis during swallowing

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33
Q

functions of larynx

A

provide continuous airway
act as switch to route food and air properly
voice production

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34
Q

larynx

A

voice box
folds of epithelium over ligaments of elastic fibers create vocal folds/cords
vocal cords project to glottis
air passing through glottis vibrates folds producing sound
pitch-> controlled by tensing/relaxing of the cords- tense + narrow = high pitch
volume-> controlled by the amount of air
sound production-> phonation

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35
Q

speech

A

formation of sound using mouth and tongue with resonance in pharynx, mouth, sinuses and nose

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36
Q

laryngitis

A

inflammation of vocal folds
cause-> infection or overuse that can inhibit phonation

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37
Q

the trachea

A

attached to inferior of larynx
walls composed of three layers: mucosa, submucosa, adventitia

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38
Q

mucosa

A

pseudostratified columnar epithelium, goblet cells, lamina propria, smooth muscle and glands

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39
Q

submucosa

A

connective tissue (CT) with additional mucus glands

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40
Q

adventitia

A

CT with hyaline cartilage rings (15-20)-> keep airway open, C-shaped
opening toward the esophagus to allow expansion, ends connected by trachealis muscle

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41
Q

primary bronchi organization

A

trachea branches into the right and left primary bronchi
similar structure as trachea- no trachealis muscle
right= steeper angle
enter lungs at groove (hilum)- along with blood and lymphatic

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42
Q

primary bronchi

A

lungs have lobes separated by deep fissures
inside lungs bronchi branch, get smaller in diameter- branch ~23 times creating the bronchial tree

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43
Q

as bronchi get smaller, structure changes

A

less cartilage in adventitia
more smooth muscle in lamina propria
epithelium is thinner, less cilia, less mucus

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44
Q

hilum

A

where pulmonary nerves, blood vessels, and lymphatics enter lung
anchored in meshwork of connective tissue

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45
Q

bronchitis

A

inflammation of bronchial walls: causes constriction and breathing difficulty

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46
Q

the lungs

A

left and right lungs- are in left and right pleural cavities
the base- inferior portion of each lung rests on superior surface of diaphragm
lobes of the lungs are separated by deep fissures- right has 3, left has 2

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47
Q

pleurisy

A

inflammation of pleura
restrict movement of lungs-> breathing difficulty

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48
Q

terminal bronchiole

A

smallest bronchi
no cartilage
last part of conduction portion
trachea, bronchi and bronchioles innervated by ANS to control airflow to the lungs

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49
Q

ANS regulates smooth muscle

A

controls diameter of bronchioles
controls airflow and resistance in lungs
sympathetic-> bronchodilation
parasympathetic-> bronchoconstriction- histamine release (allergic reactions)

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50
Q

asthma

A

excessive stimulation and bronchoconstriction
activated by inflammatory chemicals (histamine)
stimulation severely restricts airflow
epinephrine inhaler mimics sympathetic ANS-> bronchodilation

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51
Q

terminal bronchiole branching

A

each terminal bronchiole delivers air to one pulmonary lobule, separated by CT
inside lobule, terminal bronchiole branches into respiratory bronchioles- no cilia or mucus
each respiratory bronchiole connects to alveolar sac made up of many alveoli

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52
Q

alveoli

A

wrappe in capillaries
held in place by elastic fiber
three cell types: type 1 cells, type 2 cells, alveolar macrophages

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53
Q

type 1 cells

A

gas exchange
simple squamous epithelium, lines inside

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54
Q

type 2 cells

A

surfactant
cuboidal cells produce surfactant
phospholipids + proteins
prevent alveolar collapse, reduces surface tension

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55
Q

alveolar macrophages

A

phagocytosis of particles

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56
Q

respiratory distress

A

difficult respiration due to alveolar collapse caused when septal cells do not produce enough surfactant

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57
Q

disorders of the alveoli

A

pneumonia
pulmonary embolism

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58
Q

pneumonia

A

inflammation of lungs from infection or injury
causes fluid to leak into alveoli
compromises function of respiratory membrane-> prevents gas exchange

59
Q

pulmonary embolism

A

block in branch of pulmonary artery
reduce blood flow
causes alveolar collapse

60
Q

external respiration

A

includes all processes involved in exchanging O2 and CO2 with the environment

61
Q

internal respiration

A

also called cellular respiration
involves the uptake of O2 and production of CO2 within individual cells

62
Q

three processes of external respiration

A
  1. pulmonary ventilation (breathing)
  2. gas diffusion- across membranes and capillaries
  3. transport of O2 and CO2- between alveolar capillaries and between capillary beds in other tissues
63
Q

breathing

A

repetitive cycle of inspiration (inhaling) and expiration (exhaling)

64
Q

respiratory cycle

A

one complete breath, inspiration and expiration

65
Q

quiet respiration

A

breathing while at rest; effortless and automatic

66
Q

forced respiration

A

deep or rapid breathing, such as during exercise or playing an instrument

67
Q

pressure difference

A

flow of air in and out of lung depends on a pressure difference between air within lungs and outside body

68
Q

respiratory muscles

A

change lung volumes and create differences in pressure relative to the atmosphere

69
Q

pulmonary ventilation

A

is the physical movement of air into/out of respiratory tract- provides alveolar ventilation
visceral pleura adheres to parietal pleura via surface tension- altering size of pleural cavity will alter size of lungs

70
Q

injury to chest wall

A

pneumothorax- allows air into pleural cavity
atelectasis (also called a collapsed lung) is a result of pneumothorax

71
Q

Boyle’s law

A

gas pressure is inversely proportional to volume
defines the relationship between gas pressure and volume: P=1/V

72
Q

pressure and airflow to the lungs

A

air flows from area of higher pressure to area of lower pressure

73
Q

mechanism of pulmonary ventilation

A

causes volume changes that create changes in pressure
volume of thoracic cavity changes- with expansion or contraction of diaphragm or rib cage

74
Q

diaphragm contraction

A

contraction of diaphragm pulls it toward abdomen- lung volume INCREASE, air pressure DECREASE, air flows in

75
Q

diaphragm relaxation

A

causes diaphragm to rise in dome shape
lung volume DECREASE
air pressure INCREASE
air flows out

76
Q

rib cage

A

movements can contribute
superior = bigger, air in
inferior = smaller, air out

77
Q

factors influencing pulmonary ventilation

A
  1. airway resistance
  2. compliance (ability of lungs and thorax to expand)
78
Q

airway resistance

A

diameter of bronchi
obstructions

79
Q

compliance (ability of lungs and thorax to expand)

A

effort required to expand lungs and chest
high compliance = expand easily, normal
low compliance = resist expansion

80
Q

compliance affected by

A
  1. CT structure
  2. alveolar expandability
  3. mobility of thoracic cage
81
Q

CT structure

A

loss of elastin/replacement by fibrous tissue = decrease compliance
emphysema- respiratory surface replaced by scars, loss of surface for gas exchange, decrease elasticity = decrease compliance

82
Q

alveolar expandability/alveolar surface tension

A

surfactant (type 2 cells) reduces alveoli surface tension allow inflation
respiratory distress syndrome- too little surfactant-> requires great force to open alveoli to inhale- increase surface tension (decrease surfactant)= decrease compliance- fluid (edema) = decrease compliance

83
Q

mobility of thoracic cage

A

less mobility = decrease compliance

84
Q

quiet breathing inspiration

A

eupnea
diaphragm: moves 75% of air
external intercostals: elevate ribs, 25% more

85
Q

forced breathing inspiration

A

hyperpnea
maximum rib elevation increases respiratory volume 6x
serratus anterior, pectoralis minor, scalenes, sternocleidomastoid

86
Q

inspiration

A

inhalation involves contraction of muscles to increase thoracic volume

87
Q

quiet breathing

A

eupnea
passive, muscles relax, thoracic volume decrease

88
Q

forced breathing

A

hyperpnea
abdominal muscles (obliques, transversus, rectus) contract forcing diaphragm up, thoracic volume further decrease

89
Q

resting tidal volume (TV)

A

the amount of air inhaled or exhaled with each breath under resting conditions

90
Q

expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

A

amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal tidal volume exhalation

91
Q

inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

A

amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled after a normal tidal volume inhalation

92
Q

residual volume (RV)

A

amount of air reaming in the lungs after a forced exhalation

93
Q

inspiratory capactiy (IC)

A

maximum amount of air that can be inspired after a normal expiration
IC= tidal volume + IRV

94
Q

functional residual capacity (FRC)

A

volume of air remaining in the lungs after a normal tidal volume expiration
FRC= ERV + RV

95
Q

vital capacity

A

maximum amount of air that can be expired after a maximum inspiratory effort
VC = TV + IRV + ERV

96
Q

total lung capacity

A

maximum amount of air contained in lungs after a maximum inspiratory effort
TLC = TV + IRV + ERV + RV

97
Q

a breath

A

one respiratory cycle

98
Q

respiratory rate

A

breaths/min
at rest ~12-20

99
Q

respiratory minute volume

A

(RMV/MRV) amount of air moved per minute; measures pulmonary ventilation
respiratory rate x tidal volume, ~6 L

100
Q

anatomic dead space

A

air remains in conduction portions
~1 ml/lb body weight

101
Q

alveolar ventilation

A

air reaching alveoli/min
at rest ~4.2 L

102
Q

both tidal volume and respiratory rate

A

adjusted to meet oxygen demands of body

103
Q

composition of air

A

nitrogen (N2) about 79%
oxygen (O2) about 21%
water vapor (H2O) about 0.5%
carbon dioxide (CO2) about 0.04%
trace inert gasses

104
Q

partial pressure of gas

A

concentration in air

105
Q

gas exchange depends on

A
  1. partial pressures of the gases
  2. diffusion/concentration gradients
106
Q

partial pressures of the gases

A

the pressure contributed by each gas in the atmosphere
all partial pressures together add up to 760 mm Hg- also known as atmospheric pressure

107
Q

diffusion/concentration gradients

A

gasses follow diffusion/concentration gradients to diffuse into liquid
rate depends on partial pressure and temperature

108
Q

Henry’s law

A

the amount of dissolved gas in a liquid is directly proportional to its partial pressure

109
Q

efficiency of gas exchange/diffusion at the respiratory membrane due to

A
  1. substantial differences in partial pressure across the respiratory membrane
  2. distances involved in gas exchange are small
  3. O2 and CO2 are lipid soluble
  4. total surface area for diffusion is large
  5. coordination of blood and air flow- increase blood to alveoli with increase O2
110
Q

gas exchange in lungs

A

PP O2- high in alveoli and low in capillary (blood)- diffuse into capillaries
PP CO2- low in alveoli and high in capillary (blood)- diffuse into alveoli

111
Q

gas exchange in tissues

A

pressure and flow reversed
O2 into tissues
CO2 into capillary

112
Q

gas exchange high altitude sickness

A

decrease PP O2 at high altitude-> decrease diffusion into blood

113
Q

decompression sickness

A

PP of air gasses high underwater
high amounts of N2 diffuses in blood
if pressure suddenly decreases- N2 leaves blood as gas causing bubbles-> damage and pain
hyperbaric chambers are used to treat

114
Q

transport of oxygen

A

1.5% dissolved in plasma
most bound to iron ions on heme of hemoglobin in erythrocytes
4 O2/HB, ~280 million Hb/RBC ~1 billion O2, RBC

115
Q

hemoglobin saturation

A

% of hemes bound to O2
~97.5 at alveoli
at high PP O2 hemoglobin binds O2
at low PP O2 hemoglobin releases O2

116
Q

carbon monoxide poisoning (CO)

A

compete O2 for binding to Hb, even at low PP CO
causes suffocation (no O2)

117
Q

other factors that affect Hb saturation

A

Bohr effect
temperature
BPG
pregnancy

118
Q

Bohr effect

A

affect of pH
Hb releases O2 in acidic pH
high CO2 creates carbonic acid

119
Q

temperature

A

Hb releases O2 in high temperature

120
Q

BPG (2,3 biphosphoglycerate)

A

produced by healthy RBC during glycolysis
increase BPG= increase O2 release

121
Q

pregnancy

A

fetal Hb= increase O2 binding

122
Q

fetal and adult hemoglobin

A

the structure of fetal hemoglobin differs from that of adult Hb

123
Q

at the same PO2

A

fetal Hb binds more O2 than adult Hb
which allows fetus to take O2 from maternal blood

124
Q

hemoglobin in RBCs

A

carries most blood oxygen
releases it in response to low O2 partial pressure in surrounding plasma

125
Q

if PO2 increases

A

hemoglobin binds oxygen

126
Q

if PO2 decreases

A

hemoglobin releases oxygen

127
Q

at a given PO2

A

hemoglobin will release additional oxygen
if pH decreases or temperature increases

128
Q

transport of carbon dioxide

A

~70% as carbonic acid
in RBCs and plasma carbonic anhydrase in RBCs catalyze reaction with water
~23% as carbaminohemoglobin- CO2 bound to amino groups of Hb
~7% dissolved in plasma as CO2

129
Q

respiratory homeostasis requires that

A

diffusion rates at peripheral capillaries (O2 in, CO2 out) and alveoli (CO2 out, O2 in) must match

130
Q

regulation

A

autoregulation
neural regulation

131
Q

autoregulation

A

lung perfusion
alveolar ventilation

132
Q

lung perfusion

A

blood flow in lungs is redirected to alveoli with high partial pressure of O2

133
Q

alveolar ventilation

A

alveoli with high partial pressure of CO2 receive increased air flow

134
Q

respiratory rhythmicity centers

A

located in the medulla oblongata
control the basic pace and depth of respiration

135
Q

respiratory centers

A

located in the pons
apneustic center
pneumotaxic center

136
Q

apneustic center

A

stimulated centers in medulla for inhalation

137
Q

pneumotaxic center

A

inhibits the apneustic center to allow expiration
modifies the pace set by the respiratory centers in medulla

138
Q

respiratory reflexes

A

respiratory centers modify activity based on input from receptors
chemoreceptors
baroreceptors
stretch receptors
pulmonary irritant receptors
other

139
Q

chemoreceptors

A

monitor CO2, O2, and pH in blood and CSF

140
Q

baroreceptors

A

monitor blood pressure in aorta and carotid artery

141
Q

stretch receptors

A

monitor inflation of the lungs (Hering-Breuer reflex)

142
Q

pulmonary irritant receptors

A

monitor particles in respiratory tracts and trigger cough or sneeze

143
Q

other

A

pain, temperature, and visceral sensations can trigger respiratory reflexes

144
Q

effects of aging on the respiratory system

A
  1. elastic tissues deteriorate- reducing lung compliance, lowering vital capacity
  2. arthritic changes in rib cage- decrease mobility of chest movements, decrease respiratory minute volume
  3. emphysema- decrease gas exchange, higher risk if exposed to respiratory irritants (ex. cigarette smoke, dusty jobs)

Anatomy 2 (8 decks)

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