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Anatomy 2 > Endocrine System > Flashcards

Endocrine System Flashcards

1
Q

endocrine system

A

glands, tissues and cells that secrete hormones

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2
Q

endocrinology

A

the study of this system and the diagnosis and treatment of its disorders

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3
Q

endocrine glands

A

organs that are sources of hormones

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4
Q

endocrine system function

A

regulates long-term processes: growth, development, reproduction

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5
Q

exocrine glands

A

have ducts; carry secretion to an epithelial surface or the mucosa of the digestive tract: “external secretions”
extracellular effects (food digestion)

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6
Q

endocrine glands

A

no ducts; contain dense, fenestrated capillary networks which allow easy uptake of hormones into bloodstream; “internal secretions”; intracellular effects such as altering target cell metabolism

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7
Q

direct communication

A

occurs between two cells of the same type through gap junctions via ions or small solutes

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8
Q

paracrine communication

A

uses chemical messengers to transfer signals between cells in a single tissue
messenger = cytokines or local hormones

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9
Q

endocrine communication

A

uses hormones to coordinate cellular activities in distant portions of the body
gradual, coordinated but not immediate

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10
Q

hormones

A

chemical messengers released from one tissue and transported in blood to reach target cells in other tissues

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11
Q

synaptic communication

A

involves neurons releasing neurotransmitter at a synapse close to target
immediate but short lived

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12
Q

speed and persistence of response nervous vs endocrine

A

quickly, stops quickly vs slowly, effect may continue for days or longer

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13
Q

adaptation to long-term stimuli nervous vs endocrine

A

declines (adapts quickly) vs persists (adapts slowly)

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14
Q

area of effect nervous vs endocrine

A

targeted and specific (one organ) vs general, widespread effects (many organs)

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15
Q

the endocrine system

A

consists of glands and glandular tissue involved in paracrine and endocrine communication

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16
Q

endocrine cells produce secretions

A

released into extracellular fluid-> enters blood-> body-wide distribution to find target

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17
Q

target cell

A

specific cells that possess receptors needed to bind and “read” hormonal messages

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18
Q

endocrine cells located in

A

hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, thymus, adrenal glands, pineal gland, parathyroid glands, heart, kidney, adipose tissue, digestive tracts, pancreatic islets, gonads

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19
Q

hypothalamus

A

master regulatory organ
integrates nervous and endocrine systems

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20
Q

hypothalamus secretes

A

regulatory hormones to control secretion from anterior pituitary gland
hormones from anterior pituitary control other endocrine organs

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21
Q

hypothalamus acts as

A

endocrine organ
produce ADH and oxytocin

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22
Q

autonomic centers of hypothalamus

A

neural control of adrenal medulla-> neuroendocrine reflex

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23
Q

pituitary gland

A

hangs inferior to hypothalamus via infundibulum in sella turcica of sphenoid

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24
Q

anterior lobe

A

secretes 7 hormones
function via cAMP 2nd messenger

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25
Q

posterior lobe

A

secretes 2 hormones
function via cAMP 2nd messenger

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26
Q

portal vessels

A

blood vessels link two capillary networks
entire complex is portal system
ensures that regulatory factors reach intended target cells before entering general circulation

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27
Q

hypothalamic control of the anterior lobe

A

two classes of hypothalamic regulatory hormones: releasing and secreting
rate of secretion is controlled by negative feedback

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28
Q

releasing hormones (RH)

A

stimulate synthesis and secretion of one or more hormones at anterior lobe

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29
Q

inhibiting hormones (IH)

A

prevent synthesis and secretion of hormones from the anterior lobe

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30
Q

anterior lobe (adenohypophysis)

A

glandular tissue
anterior pituitary hormones are all tropic hormones
secretion of the hormones controlled by releasing and inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus

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31
Q

tropic hormones

A

turn on secretion or support function of other endocrine organs

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32
Q

diseases cause by the growth hormone in excess

A

usually due to pituitary tumor
before epiphyseal closure = gigantism
after = acromegaly, excessive growth of hands, feet, face, internal organs

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33
Q

diseases cause by the growth hormone deficiency

A

pituitary dwarfism: failure to thrive

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34
Q

posterior lobe (neurohypophysis)

A

contains unmyelinated axons or hypothalamic neurons
supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei

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35
Q

anterior lobe produces

A

ACTH, TSH, GH, PRL, FSH, LH, MSH

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36
Q

posterior lobe produces

A

ADH, OXT

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37
Q

supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei manufacture:

A

ADH and oxytocin

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38
Q

hypothalamus produces

A

regulatory factors that adjust activities of anterior lobe of pituitary gland, which produces 7 hormones

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39
Q

most hormones control

A

other endocrine organs, including thyroid gland, adrenal gland and gonads

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40
Q

thyroid gland

A

inferior to larynx
largest pure endocrine organ

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41
Q

left and right lobes of thyroid gland connected by

A

isthmus

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42
Q

tissue of thyroid gland

A

follicles
parafollicular cells/C cells

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43
Q

follicles

A

spheres or simple cuboidal epithelium

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44
Q

parafollicular cells/C cells

A

between follicles

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45
Q

follicles filled with

A

colloid-> thyroglobulin

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46
Q

thyroglobulin protein

A

constantly synthesized by follicle cells and exocytosed into follicle for storage

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47
Q

upon stimulation by TSH thyroglobulin is processed into

A

thyroid hormones (T3/T4)

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48
Q

actively transported into thyroid follicle cells

A

iodide ions

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49
Q

iodide ions

A

stimulated by TSH form reserves in thyroid follicles
excess removed from blood at kidneys
deficiency limits rates of thyroid hormone production

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50
Q

iodated tyrosines

A

in tyroglobulins are chemically bonded to form T3 and T4

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51
Q

iodated tyroglobulins

A

are broken down to release T3 and T4

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52
Q

thyroid hormones

A

released into blood circulation

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53
Q

receptors for thyroid hormones

A

located in all cells except adult brain, spleen, testes, uterus, thyroid

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54
Q

receptors in thyroid target cells found in

A

cytoplasm
mitochondria
nucleus

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55
Q

function of cytoplasm target cell for thyroid

A

hold hormone in reserve

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56
Q

function of mitochondria target cell for thyroid

A

increase cellular respiration

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57
Q

function of nucleus target cell for thyroid

A

activate genes for enzymes involved in energy transformation and utilization

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58
Q

overall effect of thyroid hormones

A

increase metabolic rate and body heat production
regulate tissue growth and development

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59
Q

hypothyroidism

A

lack of T3/T4
myxedema
cretinism

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60
Q

myxedema

A

adults
low body temp, muscle weakness, slow reflexes, cognitive dysfunction and goiters-> swollen thyroid
produce thyroglobulin but fail to endocytose

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61
Q

cretinism

A

infants = genetic defect
causes lack of skeletal and nervous system development

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62
Q

hyperthyroidism

A

excessive T3/T4
high metabolic rate, high heart rate, restlessness, fatigue

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63
Q

graves disease

A

autoimmune disorder
produce antibodies that mimic TSH causing overproduction of thyroid hormones

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64
Q

parafollicular cells/C cells

A

in basement membrane of follicles
produce calcitonin
respond directly to blood calcium levels, not controlled by hypothalamus

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65
Q

calcitonin

A

stimulates decrease in blood Ca++ levels
inhibits osteoclasts
promotes Ca++ loss at kidneys

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66
Q

parathyroid glands

A

four glands embedded in posterior surface of thyroid gland

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67
Q

two cell types in parathyroid gland

A

oxyphiles: few, functions unknown
chief cells: majority

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68
Q

function of chief cells in parathyroid gland

A

produce parathyroid hormone (PTH)/Parathormone
most important regulator of blood calcium
secreted when blood calcium is low

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69
Q

effects of PTH

A

acts to raise blood calcium levels by acting on various tissues

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70
Q

PTH acts on

A

bone, kidney, intestines

71
Q

PTH effects on bone

A

stimulates osteoclasts and inhibits osteoblasts

72
Q

effects of PTH on kidney

A

enhances reabsorption of Ca++

73
Q

effects of PTH on intestines

A

promotes conversion of vitamin D to calcitrol in kidney to enhance Ca++ and PO43- absorption in small intestine

74
Q

thyroid gland produces

A

hormones that adjust tissue metabolic rate
a hormone that usually plays minor role in calcium ion homeostasis by opposing action of parathyroid hormone

75
Q

adrenal gland

A

2 glands, in renal fascia, superior to kidney
glandular adrenal cortex
adrenal medulla mostly nervous tissue
in general-> adrenal hormones are used to cope with stressors

76
Q

adrenal cortex

A

produces 24+ corticosteroids
in target alter gene transcription to affect metabolism
glandular

77
Q

3 layers of adrenal cortex

A
  1. zona glomerulosa
  2. zona fasciculata
  3. zona reticularis
78
Q

zona glomerulosa

A

mineralcorticoids
95% aldosterone

79
Q

function of hormones produces in zona glomerulosa

A

control water and electrolyte balance
stimulates Na+ retention and K+ loss

80
Q

hormones produces in zona glomerulosa released in response to

A

low Na+ or high K+
angiotensin mechanism
low blood pressure or volume
excessive ACTH

81
Q

zona fasciculata

A

glucocorticoids
metabolic hormones
control glucose metabolism-> cortisol (hydrocortisone), corticosterone

82
Q

function/effects of hormones produces in zona fasciculata

A

gluconeogenesis in liver
release of fatty acid from adipose tissue
triggers protein hydrolysis to release free amino acids from skeletal muscle
triggers body cells to utilize fatty acids and amino acids instead of glucose

83
Q

hormones produces in zona fasciculata released in response to

A

ACTH

84
Q

zona reticularis

A

gonadocorticoids
mostly androgens, may aid onset of puberty

85
Q

function/effects of hormones produces in zona reticularis

A

taken up by the testes and ovaries to produce testosterone and the estrogens respectively

86
Q

hormones produces in zona reticularis released in response to

A

ACTH
excess = androgenital syndrome

87
Q

adrenal medulla

A

contains two types of secretory cells
epinephrine (75-80% of secretions)
norepinephrine (20-25% of secretions)

88
Q

epinephrine and norepinephrine activation of the adrenal medulla effects in skeletal muscles

A

mobilization of glycogen reserves
accelerate the breakdown of glucose to provide ATP

89
Q

activation of the adrenal medulla effects in adipose tissue

A

stored fats are broken down into fatty acids

90
Q

activation of the adrenal medulla effects in the liver

A

glycogen molecules are broken down

91
Q

activation of the adrenal medulla effects in the heart

A

triggers an increase in the rate and force of cardiac muscle contraction

92
Q

adrenal glands produce hormones that

A

adjust metabolic activities at specific sites

93
Q

adrenal gland hormones affect

A

pattern of nutrient utilization, mineral ion balance, or rate of energy consumption by active tissues

94
Q

pineal gland

A

posterior of third ventricle
pinealocytes

95
Q

pinealocytes

A

produce melatonin from serotonin

96
Q

pinealocytes secretion

A

diurnal cycle
high at night, low during daylight

97
Q

melatonin functions

A

play role in timing of sexual maturation
antioxidant-> free radical protection
sets circadian rhythms

98
Q

pancreas

A

inferior and posterior to stomach
mostly exocrine cells-> pancreatic acini- secrete digestive enzymes
1% endocrine-> pancreatic islets

99
Q

exocrine pancreas

A

pancreatic acini and their attached ducts
takes up roughly 99% of pancreatic volume
gland and duct cells secrete alkaline, enzyme rich fluid-> reaches the lumen of the digestive tract through a network of secretory ducts

100
Q

endocrine pancreas

A

consists of cells that form clusters known as pancreatic islets, or islets of Langerhans
alpha, beta, delta, F cells

101
Q

alpha cells

A

produce glucagon

102
Q

beta cells

A

produce insulin

103
Q

delta cells

A

produce peptide hormone identical to GH-IH

104
Q

F cells

A

secrete pancreatic polypeptide (PP)

105
Q

when blood glucose levels rise

A

beta cells secrete insulin, stimulating transport of glucose across plasma membranes

106
Q

when blood glucose levels decline

A

alpha cells release glucagon, stimulating glucose release by liver

107
Q

five effects of insulin

A
  1. accelerates glucose uptake
  2. accelerates glucose utilization and enhances ATP production
  3. stimulates glycogen formation
  4. stimulates amino acid absorption and protein synthesis
  5. stimulates triglyceride formation in adipose tissue
108
Q

three effects of glucagons

A
  1. stimulates breakdown of glycogen in skeletal muscle and liver cells
  2. stimulates breakdown of triglycerides in adipose tissue
  3. stimulates production of glucose in liver
109
Q

diabetes mellitus

A

too much glucose in blood (hyperglycemia)
type 1 or 2
cells cannot use glucose-> ketone bodies produced-> too many ketone bodies leads to ketoacidosis

110
Q

type 1

A

failure to produce insulin

111
Q

type 2

A

insulin resistance, sometimes insulin deficiency

112
Q

pancreatic islets release

A

insulin and glucagons

113
Q

insulin is released

A

when blood glucose levels rise

114
Q

insulin stimulates

A

glucose transport into, and utilization by, peripheral tissues

115
Q

glucagon released

A

when blood glucose levels decline

116
Q

glucagon stimulates

A

glycogen breakdown, glucose synthesis, and fatty acid release

117
Q

many organs of other body systems have secondary endocrine functions

A

intestines (digestive system)
kidneys (urinary system)
heart (cardiovascular system)
thymus (lymphatic system and immunity)
gonads (reproductive system)

118
Q

gastrointestinal tract

A

enteroendocrine cells in GI mucosa secrete many hormones-> coordinate digestive activity
mostly paracrine communication

119
Q

hormones in GI tract

A

gastrin
gastrin inhibitory peptide
secretin
cholecystokinin
enterocrinin
vasoactive intestinal peptide

120
Q

kidneys

A

various endocrine cells
three products

121
Q

three products of kidneys

A

calcitrol
erythropoeitin
renin

122
Q

calcitrol

A

steroid hormone
stimulate Ca++, PO43- absorption in GI
stimulate osteoclast activity
stimulate Ca++ retention in kidney
suppress PTH production

123
Q

erythropoeitin

A

peptide hormone
released in response to low O2 in kidney

124
Q

renin

A

enzyme

125
Q

renin effect

A

released in response to sympathetic stimulation or decline in renal blood flow
converts angiotensin in blood into Angiotensin 2 (hormone)

126
Q

Angiotensin 2 effects

A

stimulate secretion of aldosterone-> adrenal
stimulate secretion of ADH-> pituitary
stimulate thirst
elevate blood pressure (BP)

127
Q

heart

A

some walls of atrial walls secrete atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) in response to stretch

128
Q

ANP effects

A

promotes Na+ and water loss at kidney
inhibits release of renin, ADH, and aldosterone-> reduce BP and volume

129
Q

thymus

A

located deep to sternum
cell produces thymosin hormones

130
Q

thymosin hormones

A

promote development and maturation of T lymphocytes and the immune system

131
Q

thymuses of the newborn and adult

A

newborn thymus is large for antibodies and to build an immune system and shrinks to adulthood

132
Q

testes

A

interstitial cells produce androgens in response to LH
testosterone, most common

133
Q

testosterone effects

A

produces male secondary sex characteristics
promotes sperm production
maintains secretory glands

134
Q

ovaries

A

follicle cells produce estrogens in response to FSH and LH
estradiol
progesterone

135
Q

function of estradiol

A

regulates menstrual female reproductive cycles

136
Q

effects of estradiol

A

produce female secondary sex characteristics
support maturation of oocytes
stimulate growth of uterine lining

137
Q

surge in LH in ovaries causes

A

ovulation
follicle reorganizes to form corpus luteum

138
Q

function of progesterone

A

involved in the menstrual cycle, pregnancy and embryogenesis

139
Q

effects of progesterone

A

prepares uterus for embryo growth
accelerates movement of oocyte/embryo to uterus
enlargement of mammary glands

140
Q

adipose tissue

A

leptin secretion
resistin secretion

141
Q

leptin secretion

A

in response to absorption of glucose and lipids
triggers satiation in appetite center of hypothalamus
controls normal levels of GnRH, gonadotropin synthesis

142
Q

resistin secretion

A

reduces insulin sensitivity

143
Q

hormones can be divided into 3 groups

A

amino acid derivatives
peptide hormones
lipid derivatives

144
Q

amino acid derivatives

A

structurally similar to or based on amino acids
e.g. catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamin), thyroid hormones, melatonin

145
Q

peptide hormones

A

chains of amino acids
peptides
glycoproteins

146
Q

peptides

A

<200 amino acids
e.g. ADH, oxytocin, GH

147
Q

glycoproteins

A

> 200 amino acids with carbohydrate side chain
e.g, TSH

148
Q

lipid derivatives

A

steroid hormones
eicosanoids (local hormones)

149
Q

steroid hormones

A

structurally similar to/based on cholesterol
e.g. Androgens, Estrogens, Calcitrol

150
Q

eicosanoids (local hormones)

A

derived from arachidonic acid
not circulating autocrine or paracrine only
E.g. leukotrienes, prostaglandins

151
Q

leukotrienes

A

from leukocytes-> coordinate inflammation

152
Q

prostaglandins

A

from mast cells-> coordinate local activities (smooth muscle contractions, clotting, etc.)

153
Q

hormone mechanism of action

A

hormones circulate in blood-> contact all cells
only cause effects in cells with receptors for hormone-> called target cells
receptors present on a cell determines the cell’s hormonal sensitivity

154
Q

hormone stimulus effects in target cells

A
  1. alter plasma membrane permeability or transmembrane potential by opening/closing ion channels
  2. stimulate synthesis of-> structural proteins, receptors, regulatory enzymes within cell
  3. activate or deactivate enzymes
  4. induce secretory activity
  5. stimulate mitosis
155
Q

hormone receptors

A

located on plasma membrane or inside target
1. cell membrane hormone receptors
2. intracellular hormone receptors

156
Q

peptides and catecholamines

A

hydrophilic, so cannot penetrate target cell membrane
work through second messenger systems

157
Q

three major second-messengers

A

cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)
diacylglycerol (DAG)
inositol triphosphate (IP3)
hormonal effects are relatively quick- don’t depend on cell synthesizing new proteins

158
Q

cAMP mechanism

A
  1. hormone binds receptor
  2. G-protein activated
  3. adenylate cyclase activated
  4. ATP-> cAMP
  5. kinases activated
  6. proteins (enzymes) phosphorylated
  7. enzymes activated/deactivated
159
Q

phospholipids-calcium mechanism

A
  1. hormone binds receptor
  2. G-protein activated
  3. phospholipase C (PLC) activated
  4. phospholipids cleaved into diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol triphosphate (IP3)
  5. DAG can open Ca++ channels on membrane
  6. IP3 releases Ca++ from ER
  7. kinases activated
  8. enzymes phosphorylated and activated
160
Q

cell membrane hormone receptors

A

2nd messenger mechanism results in amplification of hormone signals
one hormone molecule binds one receptor but can result in thousands of final products

161
Q

intracellular hormone receptors

A

steroid hormones, thyroid hormones
result in direct gene activation by hormone
hormone diffuses across membrane, binds receptors in cytoplasm or nucleus
hormone + receptor bind DNA-> transcription-> translation= protein production-> metabolic enzymes, structural proteins, secretions

162
Q

target cell activation depends on

A
  1. blood level of hormone
  2. relative number of receptors
  3. affinity of bond between hormone and receptor
    if hormone levels are excessively high for too long-> cells can reduce receptor number or affinity and become-> non-responsive to a hormone
163
Q

distribution and duration of hormones

A

circulating hormones either free or bound to carrier/transport proteins
effects at target cell can take seconds to days depending on mechanism and final effect, but hormone once bound to receptor is broken down quickly

164
Q

free hormones

A

last for less than 1 hour
rapidly broken down by liver, kidney, or plasma enzymes in blood

165
Q

bound hormones

A

last hours to days in blood

166
Q

interaction of hormones at target cells

A

target cells have receptors for multiple hormones
effects of one hormone can be different depending on presence or absence of other hormones

167
Q

hormone interactions

A

antagonistic
synergistic
permissive

168
Q

antagonistic

A

hormones oppose each other

169
Q

synergistic

A

hormones have additive effects

170
Q

permissive

A

one hormone is needed for the other to cause its effect

171
Q

aging and hormone production

A

causes few functional changes
decline in concentration of growth hormone and reproductive hormones

172
Q

hormones coordinate

A

cell, tissue and organ activities

173
Q

hormones circulate

A

in extracellular fluid and bind to specific receptors

174
Q

hormones modify cellular activities by

A

altering membrane permeability
activating or inactivating key enzymes
changing genetic activity

Anatomy 2 (8 decks)

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