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Anatomy 2 > Lymphoid and Immune Systems > Flashcards

Lymphoid and Immune Systems Flashcards

1
Q

lymphatic system functions

A
  1. reclaim lost fluid for return to cardiovascular system
  2. protect against pathogens & cancer cells- non-specific and specific
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2
Q

immunity

A

resistance to infection through activation of specific defenses

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3
Q

non-specific defenses

A

general protection
does not distinguish threat specifics

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4
Q

specific defenses

A

immune response
identify and defend against one particular threat

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5
Q

lymphatic system components

A
  1. lymph- fluid similar to plasma but less proteins
  2. lymphatic vessels- carry lymph from tissues to veins
  3. lymphoid tissues and organs- site of development of lymphocytes and screening for pathogens
  4. lymphocytes and phagocytes- provide defense
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6
Q

lymphocytes are produced

A

in lymphoid tissues (ex. tonsils)
lymphoid organs (ex. spleen, thymus)
and in red bone marrow

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7
Q

the circulation of fluids

A

from blood plasma to lymph and back to the venous system
also transports hormones, nutrients and waste products

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8
Q

lymph and lymphatic vessels

A

lymph originates as fluid lost from blood capillaries
fluid collected in blind end lymphatic capillaries
endothelial cells loosely bound together with overlap acts as one-way valve: allows fluids, solutes, viruses and bacteria to enter and prevents return to intercellular space
fluid, solutes, large objects drive into lymphatic capillary by pressure in interstitial space

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9
Q

lymphatic vessels

A

histologically most like veins
three tunics
large ones have vasa vasorum
many valves
many anastomoses
lymph nodes present along vessels

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10
Q

lymphatic vessels

A

converge, return fluid to blood stream: lymphatic capillaries-> lymphatic collecting vessels-> lymphatic trunks-> subclavian veins

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11
Q

lymphoid cells

A
  1. macrophages- phagocytosis and T cell activation
  2. dendritic cells- antigen presentation (found in CT)
  3. lymphocytes- constantly circulate between blood, lymph, tissues, can survive 20+ years, 3 classes: T cells, B cells, and Natural Killer cells
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12
Q

T cells

A

“thymus dependent”, 80% of circulating lymphocytes

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13
Q

main types of T cells

A

cytotoxic (TC) cells- cell mediated immunity, kill “foreign” cells and viruses directly
memory T cells- formed in response to foreign substance, remain in body to give “immunity”
helper T (TH) cells- activate T & B cells
suppressor T (TS) cells- inhibit T & B cells

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14
Q

B cells

A

“bone marrow derived”, 10-15% of circulating lymphocytes
antibody mediated or humoral immunity
when activated-> plasma cells-> secretes antibodies (immunoglobin proteins)-> antibodies bind specific antigens (any pathogen or foreign compound)

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15
Q

Natural Killer cell

A

5-10% of circulating lymphocytes
nonspecific defense
responsible for immunological surveillance
attack abnormal cells- cancer cells, foreign cells or virus-infected cells

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16
Q

lymphopoiesis

A

occurs in bone marrow, thymus and lymphoid tissues
hemocytoblast-> lymphoid stem cell
one type of lymphoid stem cell stays in bone marrow-> produce B cell and NK cells
one type migrates to thymus-> produce T cells

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17
Q

both B and T cells

A

can divide to produce more of the same type (clones)
can migrate to all lymphoid tissues for division and development

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18
Q

lymphoid tissue

A

reticular CT, lymphocytes, and other lymphoid cells

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19
Q

function of lymphoid tissue

A
  1. proliferation site for lymphocytes
  2. surveillance point for lymphocytes and macrophages
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20
Q

two types of lymphoid tissue

A
  1. lymphoid follicles/nodules
  2. lymphoid organs
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21
Q

lymphoid follicles/nodules

A

CT packed with lymphocytes- T, B and dendritic cells
no capsule
germinal center middle with dividing B cells- surrounded by dendritic cells, T cells and some macrophages
follicles associated with respiratory, digestive, and urinary tracts
special lymphoid nodules: MALT, appendix, tonsils

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22
Q

MALT (mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue)

A

deep to intestinal epithelium
made up of individual nodules called Peyer’s Patches

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23
Q

appendix

A

tubular offshoot of beginning portion of large intestines

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24
Q

tonsils

A

large nodules in pharynx, have crypts to trap bacteria-> encourage development of immunity
5 total: 2 palatine tonsils, 1 pharyngeal (adenoid), 2 lingual tonsils

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25
Q

lymphoid organs

A

have fibrous CT capsule around outside
contain many lymphoid follicles
include: lymph nodes, thymus, spleen

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26
Q

lymph nodes

A

bean shaped, 1-25 mm
have associated blood vessels and nerves

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27
Q

lymph node structure

A

capsule= CT, surrounds outside
trabecular= folds of capsule crating partitions inside
cortex= outer edge
superficial cortex= lymphoid follicles with B cells and dendritic cells
deep cortex= T cells, transit between lymph and blood
medulla= center, houses T, B and plasma cells
sinuses= spaces throughout that house macrophages- allow lymph flow through node

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28
Q

lymph flow through node

A
  1. lymph enters via many afferent vessels- from peripheral tissues to lymph node
  2. flows slowly through sinuses where it is surveyed for pathogens and antigens- macrophages engulf pathogens, dendritic cells bind antigens and stimulate lymphocytes
  3. “clean” lymph exits via few efferent vessels that carry lymph to venous circulation
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29
Q

lymph nodes clustered

A

mostly along lymphatic trunks, nodes function to purify lymph before returning it to blood

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30
Q

if pathogen detected in node

A
  1. pathogen detected- antigens are “presented” to lymphocytes to stimulate lymphocytes
  2. lymphocytes increase in number- rapid clonal division of B & T cells
  3. causes node to swell= buboes
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31
Q

lymph node diseases

A

lymphadenopathy= chronic enlargement of lymph nodes, due to infection or cancer
cancer often metastasizes in lymph vessels- blood capillaries restrict access of cells but lymphatic capillaries do not

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32
Q

thymus

A

T cells mature in cortex and migrate to medulla to enter blood
thymus produces hormones- thymosin & thymopoietin- both promote development and maturation of lymphocytes, mostly the T cells in thymus
thymus most active in early childhood
thymus atrophies with age

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33
Q

spleen

A

located lateral to stomach
functions to remove abnormal blood cells, store iron from recycle RBCs for reuse, initiate immune response by B & T cells in response to antigens in blood, store platelets, site of fetal erythrocyte production

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34
Q

structure of spleen

A

red pulp- sinusoids filled with RBCs, platelets and macrophages which phagocytose old RBCs and pathogens
white pulp- lymphoid follicles containing lymphocytes, await antigen to activate

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35
Q

spleen cleans blood

A

blood flows slowly through sinusoids
macrophages and lymphocytes detect and destroy foreign cells and antigens

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36
Q

sinusoids

A

bleeds profusely when damaged
to fragile to stitch tears
splenectomy to prevent fatal hemorrhaging
liver and bone marrow can take over functions

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37
Q

body defenses against pathogens

A

provide resistance to fight infection, illness, and disease
2 categories of defenses: nonspecific and specific defenses

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38
Q

three lines of defense

A

1st line: prevent entry-> skin & mucosa
2nd line: general antimicrobial actions when first line has been penetrated- nonspecific defense= innate defense
3rd line: precision assault on a specific pathogen- specific defense= immune response

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39
Q

nonspecific defenses

A

always work the same way
against any type of invading agent
born with it

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40
Q

7 types of nonspecific resistance

A
  1. physical barriers
  2. phagocytic cells
  3. immunological surveillance
  4. interferons
  5. complement
  6. inflammation
  7. fever
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41
Q

physical barriers

A
  1. cutaneous membrane (skin)
  2. mucosa
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42
Q

cutaneous membrane (skin)

A

impenetrable layers of keratinized cells
impermeable to water and chemicals
acid pH due to sebum
high salt due to perspiration
acid and salt inhibit microbial growth

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43
Q

mucosa

A

produces antimicrobial secretions:
acid-> inhibit microbe growth
lysozyme-> lyse bacterial cell walls
mucus-> traps microbes

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44
Q

phagocytes

A
  1. microphages
  2. macrophages
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45
Q

microphages

A

neutrophils and eosinophils
either phagocytose pathogens OR secrete defensins on pathogen
defensins cause membrane pores that result in lysis of target cell

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46
Q

macrophages

A

phagocytose pathogens, cell debris and foreign material
fixed macrophages-> non-traveling, associated with specific tissues or organs (ex. microglia)
free macrophages-> travel throughout body via blood

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47
Q

all phagocytes

A

emigrate from capillaries
display chemotaxis
have receptors to bind target for phagocytosis

48
Q

phagocytosis process

A
  1. phagocytic cell adheres to target via receptors
  2. pseudopods from around target to engulf
  3. target internalized in phagosome-> fused with lysosome
  4. target digested in phagolysosome: small solutes diffuse into cytoplasm for use- amino acids, glucose, etc. undigestable= residual body
  5. enzymes neutralized and residual body is exocytosed
49
Q

immunological surveillance

A

means monitoring of tissues by NK cells for abnormal cells (cancer or virus infected)
1. abnormal cells express abnormal antigens on the surface-> detected by NK cells
2. NK cell binds abnormal cell and releases perforins from Golgi
3. perforins assemble on target membrane creating pores-> lysis of target

50
Q

interferons

A
  1. antiviral cytokines= chemicals used for cell to cell communication
  2. proteins released by activated lymphocytes, macrophages, or virus-infected cells
51
Q

three types of interferons

A

alpha, beta, gamma

52
Q

alpha interferons

A

produced by leukocytes
stimulate NK cells

53
Q

beta interferons

A

secreted by fibrocytes
slow inflammation

54
Q

gamma interferons

A

secreted by T cells and NK cells
stimulate macrophage activity

55
Q

complement

A

11 complement proteins + 9 other factors & regulators act in cascade to cause foreign cell lysis (often target bacteria)
1. classical pathway
2. alternate pathway
binding of C3b= “complement fixation”-> triggers anti-microbial effects

56
Q

inflammation

A

localized redness, swelling, heat, and pain in response to any tissue damage
function to help prevent injury/infection from spreading, disposes of cell debris, sets the stage for repair

57
Q

fever

A

elevated body temperature >99F/37.2
triggered by pyrogens, material that causes the hypothalamus to raise body temperature: released into blood by leukocytes (mostly macrophages) when exposed to foreign antigens
effect-> increase metabolic rate to allow better defense and repair-> rate increases 10%/1C

58
Q

fever temperatures

A

temperature up to 104F: safe and productive
at 106F-> nervous tissue dysfunctional
at 110F-> proteins denature=death

59
Q

nonspecific and specific defenses

A

operate together to provide resistance to infection and disease

60
Q

specific defenses

A

protect against specific pathogens
depend on activities of lymphocytes
specific resistance (immunity): develops after exposure to environmental hazards

61
Q

4 properties of immunity

A
  1. specificity
  2. versatility
  3. memory
  4. tolerance
62
Q

specificity

A

each B or T cell responds only to a specific antigen and ignores all others

63
Q

versatility

A

the body produces many types of lymphocytes
each fights a different type of antigen
active lymphocytes clones itself to fight specific antigen

64
Q

memory

A

some active lymphocytes (memory cells):
stay in circulation
provide immunity against new exposure

65
Q

tolerance

A

immune system ignores “normal” antigens (self-antigens)

66
Q

T cells

A

cellular immunity (cell-mediated immunity)
function to amplify the inflammatory response

67
Q

B cells

A

humoral immunity (antibody-mediated immunity)
responsible for most complement activation/fixation

68
Q

B and T cells

A

covered in receptor that recognize and bind only one specific antigen

69
Q

antigen

A

foreign substance that can activate the immune system and provoke an immune response
usually large complex molecules-> proteins, nucleic acids, some lipids, some polysaccharides

70
Q

pathogens

A

a bacterium, virus, or other microorganism that can cause disease

71
Q

simple chemical structures

A

like plastic and metal are not immunogenic/antigenic

72
Q

T cells and cell mediated immunity

A

targets virus or parasite infected cells, cancer cells, and cells of foreign grafts
T cells must be activated by exposure to antigen
do not recognize free antigen
antigen must be bound to special glycoprotein receptors on target cell: major histocompatibility complex (MHC)

73
Q

main types of T cells

A
  1. cytotoxic T cells
  2. helper T cells
  3. memory T cells
  4. suppressor T cells
74
Q

cytotoxic T cells

A

carry out cell mediated immunity
physically attack foreign cells

75
Q

helper T cells

A

activated B and Tc cells

76
Q

memory T cells

A

clone more of themselves in response to “remembered” antigen

77
Q

suppressor T cells

A

moderate the immune response by inhibiting Tc and B cells

78
Q

MHC proteins

A

the membrane glycoproteins that bind to antigens
genetically coded in chromosome 6: the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) differs among individuals

79
Q

two classes of MHC proteins

A

class 1: found in membranes of all nucleated cells
class 2: found in membranes of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) found in lymphocytes

80
Q

class 1 MHC proteins

A

pick up small peptides in cell and carry them to the surface: T cells ignore normal peptides, abnormal peptides or viral proteins activate T cells to destroy cell

81
Q

class 2 MHC protein

A

found on lymphocytes and antigen presenting cells (APC)
bind exogenous antigens (material that have been phagocytosed and broken down)
activated Th cells which activate B cells and Tc cells

82
Q

APC

A

dendritic cells, Langerhans cells, macrophages, activated B cells
APC are responsible for activating T cells against foreign cells and proteins

83
Q

class 1 and class 2 MHC recognition

A

each T cell detects only one antigen and only when it is in either class 1 MHC or class 2 MHC
Tc and Ts: respond to antigen in class 1 MHC
Th: respond to antigen in class 2 MHC

84
Q

organ transplants

A

graft rejection:
tissue typing: attempt to match MHC, but antigens in MHC will always be foreign, thus attacked
need immuno-suppressive drugs to suppress Tc cell activity to save graft

85
Q

activation of helper T cells

A
  1. bind antigen in class 2 MHC
  2. proliferation/clonal selection
  3. memory cells
  4. active helper T cells
86
Q

costimulation

A

by cytokines from active phagocytes

87
Q

Tc cells may destroy target cells through release of

A

cytokines, lymphotoxins, or perforin

88
Q

T cell activation usually involves:

A

antigen presentation by phagocytic cell

89
Q

cell-mediated immunity

A

involves close physical contact between activated Tc cells and foreign, abnormal or infected cells

90
Q

B cells and antibody mediated immunity

A

targets bacteria, bacterial toxins, and free viruses

91
Q

B cells

A

responsible for antibody-mediated immunity
attack antigens by producing specific antibodies
millions of populations, each with different antibody molecules

92
Q

activation of B cells: T dependent antigens

A
  1. B cells have antibodies (IgD) on surface as receptor for antigen-> binding causes B cell to become sensitized
  2. bound antigen is internalized, processed, and reappear back on the surface bound to class 2 MHC protein
  3. a specific Th cell recognizes the antigen + MHC complex and releases cytokines to activate the B cell
  4. activated B cell proliferates (clonal selection) to produce memory B cells and plasma cells
93
Q

initial exposure to antigen

A

~5 days B cell-> plasma cell
~10 days to peak antibody levels (titer) in blood
antibodies (IgM) circulate ~2 weeks

94
Q

second exposure to antigen

A

memory cell-> plasma cell ~1-2 days
peak titer ~2-3 days, higher level
antibodies (IgG) circulate weeks-months

95
Q

primary and secondary responses

A

occur in both cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immunity

96
Q

antibody (Ab) structure

A

2 parallel pairs of polypeptide chains: 1 pair of identical heavy chains and 1 pair of identical light chains- held together by disulfide bonds
hinge region= flexibility
each chain contains: constant segments and variable segments

97
Q

constant segments (C) of antibody

A

determine class of antibody molecules
have sites for complement binding (Fc region)

98
Q

variable segments (V) of antibody

A

determine antigen specificity of antibody
make up antigen bind sites

99
Q

humans produce 100 million- 1 billion different anitbodies that

A

each bind a different antigen

100
Q

5 heavy chain constant segments determine 5 types of antibodies

A

IgG
IgM
IgA
IgD
IgE

101
Q

IgG antibodies

A

monomer
most common
produced in large quantity upon second exposure
provides resistance against viruses, bacteria, and toxins
can cross placenta

102
Q

IgM antibodies

A

pentamer (5)
first class produced upon initial exposure
forms immune complexes (agglutination)

103
Q

IgA antibodies

A

dimer
in secretions

104
Q

IgD antibodies

A

monomer
on surface of B cells as receptor
sensitizes or activates B cell upon antigen binding

105
Q

IgE antibodies

A

monomer
on mast cells and basophils as receptor
triggers histamine release upon antigen binding

106
Q

antigen-antibody complex

A

antibodies bind antigen via antigen binding sites
antigen gets bound by its antigenic determinant site (epitope)

107
Q

epitope

A

the part of an antigen that is recognized by the immune system, specifically by antibodies, B cells or T cells

108
Q

complete antigen

A

has two antigenic determinant sites
binds to both antigen-binding sites of variable segments of antibody

109
Q

antibody-mediated immunity involves

A

the production of specific antibodies by plasma cells derived from activated B cells

110
Q

B cell activation usually involves

A

antigen recognition, through binding to surface antibodies
costimulation by a Th cell

111
Q

antibodies produced by active plasma cells bind to target antigen and:

A

inhibit its activity
destroy it
remove it from solution
promote its phagocytosis by other defense cells

112
Q

autoimmune disorders

A

immune response targets normal body cells, auto-antibodies produced

113
Q

immunodeficiency disease

A

immune system fails to develop, or immune responses are blocked

114
Q

allergies

A

inappropriate or excessive immune responses to antigens

115
Q

age related changes

A

thymus size decreases-> less T cells produced
decrease Th cells-> less B and Tc cell activation-> decrease immunity overall
decrease B cells-> decrease antibodies-> increase susceptibility to viral and bacterial infections
increase chance of cancer- decrease NK and Tc cells

Anatomy 2 (8 decks)

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