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Anatomy 2 > Blood > Flashcards

Blood Flashcards

1
Q

cardiovascular system

A

anatomical division
a circulating transport system: heart, blood vessels, blood

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2
Q

circulatory system

A

clinical division
cardiovascular system, lymphatic system

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3
Q

functions of the cardiovascular system

A

to transport materials to and from cells:
oxygen and carbon dioxide
nutrients and waste products
hormones
immune system components

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4
Q

blood

A

fluid connective tissue
functions: distribution, regulation, protection

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5
Q

distribution

A

deliver oxygen and nutrients to cells
remove metabolic waste
transport hormones to targets

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6
Q

regulation

A

maintain body temp-> distribute heat
maintain pH & fluid volume

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7
Q

protection

A

restrict loss at injury (clotting)
prevent infection (leukocytes)

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8
Q

characteristics of blood

A

pH 7.4
temperature in average- 37C/98.6F
total volume: 4-6 Liters

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9
Q

fractionation

A

process of separating whole blood into plasma and formed elements

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10
Q

blood matrix

A

plasma
~55 of blood (water and soluble proteins)

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11
Q

blood cells

A

formed elements
erythrocytes: ~45%, transport oxygen
leukocytes: <1%, defense
platelets: <1%, cell fragments and for clotting

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12
Q

plasma

A

92% water + dissolved solutes
nutrients, gasses, hormones, wastes, ions

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13
Q

plasma proteins

A

(~8% of total plasma)
7/6g/100mL of plasma
5x more proteins than interstitial fluid
proteins remain in plasma- maintain the osmotic balance

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14
Q

three classes of plasma proteins

A

albumins (60%)
globulins (35%)
fibrinogen (4%)
other (1%)

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15
Q

albumins

A

produced by the liver
functions:
act as pH buffer for blood
contribute to osmotic pressure of blood- keep water in blood
transport fatty acids
transport thyroid hormones
transport steroid hormones

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16
Q

globulins

A

gamma globulins/antibodies/immunoglobulins
alpha and beta globulins/transport globulins

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17
Q

gamma globulins/antibodies/immunoglobulins

A

produced by plasma cells in the lymphatic system
function to attack foreign substances

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18
Q

alpha and beta globulins/transport globulins

A

produced by the liver
function to transport small or insoluble compounds to prevent filtration loss by the kidney

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19
Q

clotting factors

A

produced by the liver
11 total, fibrinogen most abundant
all function to promote or form a clot
fibrinogen produce long, insoluble strands of fibrin

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20
Q

other plasma proteins

A

from liver: metabolic enzymes and antibacterial proteins
from endocrine organs: hormones

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21
Q

liver disease

A

leads to blood disorders b/c plasma proteins are produced by the liver

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22
Q

hemopoiesis

A

process of producing formed elements
blood cell production
all formed elements arise from the same progenitor cell- the hemocytoblast, located in the red bone marrow

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23
Q

total blood volume (liters)

A

7% of body weight (kilograms)

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24
Q

about 1/2 the volume of whole blood is

A

cells and cell products

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25
Q

plasma resembles interstitial fluid, but

A

contains a unique mixture of proteins not found in other extracellular fluids

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26
Q

erythrocytesa

A

99.9% of blood’s formed elements
1/3 of total body cells- average human = ~75 trillion cells
average RBC count= 4.2-6.3 million/ml

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27
Q

red blood cell count

A

reports the number of RBCs in 1 microliter of whole blood

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28
Q

hematocrit

A

packed cell volume, PCV
% of whole blood occupied by formed elements
mostly erythrocytes: 99.9%
males have a greater percentage of RBC then females

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29
Q

anemia

A

not enough RBCs

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30
Q

polycythemia

A

too many RBCs (over 50%) but normal blood volume- dehydration, tissue hypoxia, high altitude, blood doping in athletes
also can be due to bone marrow cancer
high hematocrit = high viscosity-> heart strain and stroke

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31
Q

RBC

A

normal blood counts
male: 4.5-6.3 million/ml
female: 4-5.5 million/ml

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32
Q

structure of erythrocytes

A

small and highly specialized biconcave disc
thin in middle and thicker at edge

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33
Q

importance of RBC shape and size

A

large surface area for gas exchange: quickly absorbs and releases oxygen
folds and forms stacks: passes through narrow blood vessels
discs bend and flex entering small capillaries: 7.8 mm diameter (AVG) passes through capillary (5 to 10mm)

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34
Q

erythrocytes

A

mature erythrocytes lack all organelles
lack nuclei, mitochondria, and ribosomes
no division, no repair
life span < 120 days
cell in 97% hemoglobin protein (red color)
hemoglobin transports oxygen and some carbon dioxide

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35
Q

hemoglobin structure

A

complex quaternary structure
2 alpha chains and 2 beta chains
each chain has one heme group with iron in center: iron binds oxygen

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36
Q

oxyhemoglobin

A

oxygen bound, RED

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37
Q

deoxyhemoglobin

A

no oxygen, BURGUNDY

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38
Q

fetal Hb

A

binds oxygen stronger than adults
insures transfer of oxygen from mom

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39
Q

most oxygen

A

is carried in blood bound to Hb, some in plasma

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40
Q

only 20% carbon dioxide carried by Hb

A

carbaminohemoglobin- carbon dioxide bound to amino acids on alpha/beta chains, not on heme

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41
Q

hemoglobin

A

280 million Hb/RBC, 4 hemes/Hb, each heme binds 1 oxygen = >1 billion oxygen/RBC
25 trillion RBC per person
normal hemoglobin (adult male): 14-18 g/dl whole blood

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42
Q

hemoglobin function

A

when plasma oxygen is low, Hb releases oxygen and binds carbon dioxide
at lungs carbon dioxide exchanged for oxygen by diffusion

43
Q

anemia

A

hemoglobin levels are below normal
oxygen starvation due to: insufficent number of RBCs, low Hb, abnormal Hb- thalassemia, sickle-cell anemia

44
Q

thalassemia

A

inability to produce alpha or beta chains
slow RBC production
cells fragile and short lived

45
Q

sickle-cell anemia

A

single amino acid mutation in beta chain high oxygen
cells normal low oxygen
Hb misfolds
RBCs deform into crescent shape- RBCs block capillaries

46
Q

recycling RBCs

A

macrophages (phagocytes) of liver, spleen, and bone marrow: monitor RBCs and engulf old/damaged RBCs
replaced by new- 1% of circulating RBCs replaced per day: about 2-3 million RBCs per second

47
Q

phagocytes break cells down

A

protein and heme

48
Q

phagocytes break down protein

A

globulin amino acids, released for use

49
Q

phagocytes break down heme

A

hemoglobin into components
1. iron is removed- it is bound to transferrin in blood for recycling back to bone marrow (new RBCs)
2. pigment-> heme-> biliverdin (green)-> bilirubin (yellow-green)-> bilirubin is released into blood, filtered by liver, excreted in bile
3. in gut, bilirubin-> urobilins (yellow) and stercobilins (brown)-> urobilins is excreted in urine, stercobilins remain in feces

50
Q

jaundice

A

failure of bilirubin to be excreted in bile, collects in peripheral tissues
causes yellow skin and eyes

51
Q

hemoglobinuria

A

cause-> hemolysis, RBC rupture in blood
red/brown urine due to kidney filtering intact alpha and beta chains of hemoglobin

52
Q

erythropoiesis

A

red blood cell formation
occurs in reticular CT in red bone marrow, in spongy bone
stem cells mature to become RBCs
2-3 million/sec (1 oz new blood per day)

53
Q

hemocytoblasts stem cells in bone marrow divide to produce

A

myeloid stem cells- become RBCs, some WBCs
lymphoid stem cells- become lymphocytes

54
Q

erythropoiesis process

A
  1. hemocytoblast differentiates into myeloid stem cells
  2. followed by many stages of differentiation, all involve an increase in protein synthesis
  3. cell fills with Hb- loses organelles including the nucleus
  4. 3-5 days reticulocytes are formed (Hb + some ribosomes), released into blood- 1-2% of total blood RBCs
  5. 2 days in circulation lose ribosomes = mature erythrocytes- no more protein synthesis
55
Q

building red blood cells requires

A

amino acids
iron
vitamins B12, B6, and folic acid
lack B12= pernicious anemia
low RBC production

56
Q

erythropoietin (EPO)

A

also called- erythropoiesis-stimulating hormone
secreted by the kidney
secreted when oxygen in tissues is low (hypoxia= low oxygen level)
due to disease or high altitude
no EPO= kidney failure b/c low RBCs

57
Q

EPO stimulate RBC production

A

increase cell division rates (up to 30 million/sec)
increase Hb synthesis = decrease maturation time

58
Q

blood doping

A

injection EPO or RBC to enhance athletic performance
pros- increase oxygen to tissue
cons- increase hematocrit/viscosity= clots, stroke and heart strain

59
Q

blood types

A

all cells membranes have surface antigens
antigens indicate “self”
normal cells are ignored, and foreign cells attacked
are genetically determined
classified by the presence or absence of RBC surface antigens: A, B, or D (Rh)
RBCs have 3 important antigens for transfusion, agglutinogens A, B, D (Rh)

60
Q

antigen

A

substance that triggers immune response

61
Q

agglutinogens

A

antigens on surface of RBCs
screened by immune system
plasma antibodies attack (agglutinate) foreign antigens

62
Q

4 basic blood types

A

A (surface antigen A)
B (surface antigen B)
AB (surface antigens A and B)
O (neither A nor B)

63
Q

blood plasma antibodies

A

type A: type B antibodies
type B: type A antibodies
type O: both A and B antibodies
type AB: neither A nor B

64
Q

the Rh factor

A

also called D antigen
either Rh positive (Rh+) or Rh negative (Rh-)
only sensitized Rh- blood has anti-Rh antibodies

65
Q

blood type test

A

determines blood type and compatibility

66
Q

cross-reaction

A

also called and is a type of transfusion reaction

67
Q

if donor and recipient blood types not compatible

A

plasma antibody meets its specific surface
antibodies will cause blood agglutination (clumping) of antigen (agglutinogen) and hemolyze

68
Q

cross-match test

A

performed on donor and recipient blood for compatibility
without cross-match, type O- blood is universal donor
it lacks all agglutinogens (A,B and D)
no risk of agglutination by antibodies in anyone

69
Q

universal donor

A

AB

70
Q

universal recipient

A

O

71
Q

erythroblastosis fetalis

A

AKA hemolytic disease of the newborn
antibodies against D antigen only form upon exposure and can cross the placenta
Rh- mom pregnant with Rh+ baby- gets exposed to D antigen during birth, makes anti-D antibodies, pregnant with second Rh+ baby, antibodies cross placenta, causes agglutination and lysis of fetal RBCs-> anemia and death of the fetus
prevention= treat mom with RhoGAM during first birth to prevent antibody formation

72
Q

leukocytes (WBCs)

A

<1% of total blood volume
6000-9000 leukocytes/ml blood
use blood to travel to tissues
not permanent residents of blood
most in connective tissue proper and lymphatic system organs
all have nuclei & organelles, no hemoglobin

73
Q

function of leukocytes

A

defend against pathogens
remove toxins and wastes
attack abnormal/damaged cells

74
Q

circulating WBCs

A
  1. migrate out of bloodstream (diapedesis)
  2. have amoeboid movement in bloodstream
  3. attracted to chemical stimuli (positive chemotaxis)
  4. some are phagocytic: engulf pathogens and debris
    neutrophils, eosinophils and monocytes
75
Q

margination

A

adhere to vessel

76
Q

emigration

A

pass between endothelial cells in vessel walls

77
Q

5 types of leukocytes

A
  1. neutrophils
  2. eosinophils
  3. basophils (in tissues very similar to basophils are the mast cells)
  4. monocytes (progenitors of macrophages and dendritic cells in tissues)
  5. lymphocytes
78
Q

neutrophils

A

also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs)
non-specific defense
phagocytic
50-70% of circulating WBCs
3-5 lobed nucleus
pale cytoplasm granules with: lysosomal enzymes and defensins, bactericides- hydrogen peroxide and superoxide
very mobile: first at injury
life span less than 10 hours

79
Q

neutrophil function

A
  1. respiratory burst- H2O2 and O2-, kills and phagocytize
  2. release leukotrienes- attract phagocytes
  3. release prostaglandins- induce inflammation to stop the spread of injury
  4. degranulation- release defensins (against some bacteria, fungi, and viruses), lyse bacteria
80
Q

eosinophils

A

also called acidophils
phagocytic
2-4% of circulating WBCs
bilobed nucleus
granules contain toxins
life span 9 days
attack large parasites

81
Q

eosinophil functions

A
  1. phagocytosis of antibody covered objects
  2. defense against parasites: exocytose toxins on large pathogens
  3. reduce inflammations- anti-inflammatory chemicals/enzymes that counteract inflammatory effects of neutrophils and mast cells
82
Q

basophils

A

non-specific defense
not phagocytic usually
are less than 1% of circulating WBCs
granules contain: histamine- dilate blood vessels, heparin: prevents clotting
accumulate in damaged tissue
life span 9 days

83
Q

basophil functions

A
  1. inflammation (histamine)
  2. allergic response, also via histamine
84
Q

monocytes

A

in tissues = macrophages
non-specific defense
phagocytic
2-8% of circulating WBCs
are large and spherical, kidney shaped nucleus
circulate 24 hours, exit to tissues = macrophage
life span several months

85
Q

macrophage functions

A
  1. phagocytosis: virus and bacteria
  2. attract phagocytes
  3. attract fibroblasts for scar formation
  4. activate lymphocytes: mount immune response
86
Q

lymphocytes

A

immune response
20-30% of circulating WBCs
large round nucleus
migrate between blood and tissues
mostly in connective tissues and lymphatic organs
life span days to lifetime

87
Q

3 classes of lymphocytes

A
  1. B cells
  2. T cells (Helper T cells)
  3. Natural killer (NK) cells (Cytotoxic T cells)
88
Q

B cells

A

humoral immunity
differentiate into plasma cells
synthesize and secrete antibodies- memory cells

89
Q

T cells (Helper T cells)

A

cell-mediated immunity
attack foreign cells

90
Q

Natural killer (NK) cells (Cytotoxic T cells)

A

immune surveillance
destroy abnormal tissues

91
Q

the activated cytotoxic T cell

A

secretes proteins that destroy the infected target cell

92
Q

most to least abundant WBCs

A

neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils

93
Q

platelets (thrombocytes)

A

cell fragments involved in clotting
flattened discs, no nucleus
constantly replace- 5-6 days in circulation, phagocytosed by cells in spleen
in average 350,000/ml blood
1/3 of total platelets held in reserve in spleen, mobilized for crisis

94
Q

platelet counts

A

150,000 to 500,000 per microliter
thrombocytopenia
thrombocytosis

95
Q

thrombocytopenia

A

<80,000/ml
abnormally low platelet count
results in bleeding

96
Q

thrombocytosis

A

> 1 million/ml
abnormally high platelet count
due to cancer or infection
results in a clotting risk

97
Q

3 functions of platelets

A
  1. transport clotting chemicals, and release important clotting chemicals when activated
  2. temporarily form patch (platelet plug) over damaged vessel walls
  3. actively contract wound after clot formation- contain actin and myosin
98
Q

the cessation of bleeding

A

vascular phase
platelet phase
coagulation phase

99
Q

vascular phase

A

endothelial cells contract and release chemical factors to stimulate smooth muscle contraction and cell division and their membranes become “sticky”

100
Q

platelet phase

A

platelet adhesion (attachment) to sticky endothelial surfaces and exposed collagen fibers
platelet aggregation (stick together) and forms platelet plug

101
Q

two reaction pathways to coagulation

A

(both pathways require calcium)
extrinsic mechanism
intrinsic mechanism

102
Q

extrinsic mechanism

A

clotting factors from sources outside of the blood: released by damaged vessel and perivascular tissues

103
Q

intrinsic mechanism

A

uses only clotting factors found in the blood itself

104
Q

blood clotting (coagulation)

A

enzymes activate factor X
forms enzyme prothrombinase
converts prothrombin to thrombin
thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin

Anatomy 2 (8 decks)

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