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PL2022: Introductory Physiology II > Respiratory System > Flashcards

Respiratory System Flashcards

1
Q

Where does gas exchange occur?

A

Alveoli

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2
Q

How does INSPIRATION occur?

A

By reducing the air pressure in lungs to sub-atmospheric pressure = increase in lung volume

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3
Q

How does EXPIRATION occur?

A

By increasing air pressure in lungs above atmospheric pressure = decrease in lung volume

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4
Q

What is Boyle’s Law?

A

Pressure of a quantity of gas is inversely proportional to its volume

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5
Q

Where is the diaphragm muscle located?

A

At the base of the thoracic cavity

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6
Q

What are the TWO pleural membranes?

A
  • Parietal pleura (inner wall of thoracic cavity)
  • Visceral pleura (outer surface of lungs)
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7
Q

What fluid adheres pleural membranes to each other?

A

Pleural fluid in pleural cavity

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8
Q

What are the muscles contracting during NORMAL inspiration?

A
  • Diaphragm
  • External intercostal muscles
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9
Q

What muscles are involved during FORCED inspiration?

A
  • Scalenes (neck muscles)
  • Pectoralis minor (chest muscles)
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10
Q

What is the drop in intrapulmonary pressure during normal and forced INSPIRATION?

A

Normal: -3mmHg
Forced: -20mmHg

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11
Q

What is the INCREASE in intrapulmonary pressure during normal and forced EXPIRATION?

A

Normal: +3mmHg
Forced: +30mmHg

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12
Q

What are the muscles activated during FORCED expiration?

A
  • Internal intercostal muscles
  • Abdominal muscles
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13
Q

What walls are the lungs attached to?

A

Inner wall of thoracic cavity

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14
Q

What causes intrapleural pressure?

A

Both pleural membranes being pulled in opposite directions

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15
Q

Is intra-alveolar pressure lower than intrapleural pressure?

A

No
Intrapleural pressure is ALWAYS lower than intra-alveolar pressure

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16
Q

What is atmospheric pressure?

A

760mmHg

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17
Q

What is intrapleural pressure?

A

756mmHg

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18
Q

What is Pneumothorax?

A

Collapsed lungs due to damage of pleural membranes caused by broken rib or stab wound

Causes intra-alveolar pressure and intrapleural pressure to equalise

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19
Q

What is Pneumothorax?

A

Collapsed lungs due to damage of pleural membranes caused by broken rib or stab wound

Causes intra-alveolar pressure and intrapleural pressure to equalise

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20
Q

What is alveolar surface tension?

A

Interaction of thin fluid produced by spherical alveoli and air in alveoli

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21
Q

What does surface tension do in the alveoli?

A

Pulls water molecules together exerting inward force on alveoli which opposes expansion of lung tissues during inspiration

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22
Q

What is Surfactant?

A

It breaks surface tension by breaking H-bonds between molecules

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23
Q

How is surfactant produced?

A

Produced by Type II alveolar cells

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24
Q

What is the primary determinant of resistance to air flow?

A

Radius of the airways

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25
Q

Name the TWO neurotransmitters that innervate smooth muscles in bronchioles

A
  1. Noradrenaline - released by sympathetic nerves triggers bronchodilation
  2. Acetylcholine - released by parasympathetic nerves triggers bronchoconstriction
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26
Q

How is asthma treated?

A

With anti-inflammatory agents and β-adrenergic receptor agonists

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27
Q

What do β-adrenergic receptor agonists do?

A

Trigger relaxation resulting in bronchodilation

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28
Q

What is the function of the pulmonary function test?

A

Measure the quantity of air inhaled

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29
Q

What apparatus is used to measure the volume of air moving for each breath?

A

Spirometer

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30
Q

What is Tidal Volume?

A

Volume of air expired or inspired during regular breathing
(usually 500ml)

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31
Q

What is the Residual value and can it be measure using spirometry?

A

Volume of air remaining in lungs after maximal expiration (average ~1200ml) and it can’t be measured using spirometry

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32
Q

What is Vital Capacity?

A

Tidal Volume + ERV + IRV
(average ~4600ml)

33
Q

What is Total Lung Capacity?

A

Vital Capacity + Residual Volume
(average ~5800ml)

34
Q

What is one second forced expiratory volume (FEV1)?

A

Measures % of exhaled vital capacity in 1 sec

Used to diagnose obstructive lung disorders

35
Q

What is one second forced expiratory volume (FEV1)?

A

Measures % of exhaled vital capacity in 1 sec

Used to diagnose obstructive lung disorders

36
Q

What does Dalton’s Law state?

A

Total pressure of the mixture is the sum of individual gases’ pressures

37
Q

What is Partial Pressure?

A

Individual pressure of each gas
(atmospheric pressure x % of gas in atmosphere)

38
Q

What is the partial pressure of oxygen?

A

160mmHg

39
Q

What is the partial pressure of CO2?

A

0.25mmHg

40
Q

What is Henry’s Law and its THREE variables?

A

Gas ability to dissolve in blood:
1. Pressure gradient from air to blood
2. Solubility of gas in water
3. Temperature of the blood (constant)

41
Q

What is normal alveolar PO2?

A

100mmHg

42
Q

What is the PO2 of the systemic venous blood arriving in the pulmonary arterial capillaries?

A

40mmHg

43
Q

What is the PO2 in the cells?

A

40mmHg

44
Q

What is the PCO2 in the cells?

A

46mmHg

45
Q

What is the PCO2 of arterial blood?

A

40mmHg

46
Q

What is the alveolar PCO2?

A

40mmHg

47
Q

What is Hypoxaemia?

A

Abnormally low arterial PO2 resulting in hypoxia (O2 deficiency in tissues)

48
Q

How is Hypoxia recognised?

A

Cyanosis, bluish colouration of skin/mucous membranes

49
Q

What happens to PO2 at high altitudes?

A
  • Atmospheric pressure falls
  • PO2 entering the lungs decreases
  • Alveolar PO2 decreases
50
Q

What is Emphysema?

A

Restrictive pulmonary disorders causing alveoli destruction

51
Q

What is Pulmonary Oedema?

A

Increase fluid in the tissue of alveoli

52
Q

What are the TWO ways oxygen is transported into the blood?

A
  1. Dissolved in plasma
  2. Bound to haemoglobin (98% of O2)
53
Q

What are the TWO factors that the amount of O2 bound to haemoglobin is dependent on?

A
  1. PO2 of the plasma
  2. Total amount of haemoglobin in the blood
54
Q

How many subunits does a haemoglobin molecule have?

A

4

55
Q

What is Oxyhaemoglobin?

A

Irons reduced form (Fe2+) bound to O2

56
Q

Where do loading reactions occur?

A

Association of PO2 and Fe2+ occurs in pulmonary capillaries

57
Q

What is the primary determinant of O2 binding to plasma?

A

PO2 in plasma

58
Q

What type of curve is the oxyhaemoglobin curve?

A

Sigmoidal
(S-shaped)

59
Q

What happens to PO2 of tissue fluid/plasma around cells if PO2 falls to 20mmHg?

A

Extra 40% of O2 is released by haemoglobin

60
Q

How much O2 is still bound to haemoglobin under normal resting conditions?

A

75%

61
Q

How does a drop in blood pH affect the affinity between haemoglobin and O2?

A

A drop decreases the affinity of haemoglobin for O2
(release of more O2 into the cells)

62
Q

How does an increase in temperature and in 2,3-DPG release affect affinity between haemoglobin and O2?

A

It decreases affinity

63
Q

How is CO2 transported into the blood?

A

Dissolved in plasma, and bound to haemoglobin or converted to bicarbonate in RBCs

64
Q

What is the enzyme in red blood cells that converts CO2 and H2O to carbonic acid?

A

Carbonic Anhydrase (CA)

65
Q

What is Chloride Shift?

A

Transportation of bicarbonate out of the RBC in exchange of Cl- ion

66
Q

What is formed by the binding of CO2 to haemoglobin?

A

Carbaminohaemoglobin

67
Q

What is the muscle type of respiratory muscles?

A

Skeletal

68
Q

What initiates muscle contraction of respiratory muscles?

A

Somatic motor neurons (phrenic nerves)

69
Q

What sets the breathing rate?

A

A region of the medulla oblongata known as the rhythmicity centre

70
Q

What is the property and function of chemoreceptors?

A
  • They detect changes in PO2 and PCO2
  • They alter the ventilation rate to keep this value in the normal range
71
Q

What do chemoreceptors do if PCO2 increases?

A

They cause an increase in the rate and depth of breathing

72
Q

What is breathing regulation primarily controlled by?

A

Chemoreceptors sensitive to PCO2

72
Q

What is breathing regulation primarily controlled by?

A

Chemoreceptors sensitive to PCO2

73
Q

At what mmHg are arterial PCO2 and PO2 maintained?

A

PCO2 - 40mmHg

PO2 - 100mmHg

74
Q

Where are CENTRAL chemoreceptors located?

A

On the medulla oblongata, close to neurons of the rhythmicity centre

75
Q

What are the effects of an increase in blood PCO2?

A

Increase in CO2 diffusion across the blood-brain barrier making pH of CSF fall

76
Q

Where are the PERIPHERAL chemoreceptors located?

A

In the carotid and aortic bodies (same regions of vasculature as baraoreceptors)

77
Q

Where are the PERIPHERAL chemoreceptors located?

A

In the carotid and aortic bodies (same regions of vasculature as baraoreceptors)

78
Q

How can a dramatic reduction in PO2 occur?

A

Only occurs at very high altitudes or in individuals with pulmonary disorders

PL2022: Introductory Physiology II (6 decks)

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