Respiratory Flashcards

1
Q

Left lobe

A

All domestic species have two lobes - cranial and caudal
Cranial clearly divided into two parts both supplied by some bronchus
- Cranial and caudal parts of left cranial lobe
- Not in horse

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2
Q

Accessory lobe

A

Ventral midline between caudal lobes of left and right lung

Own pleura - mediastinal recess

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3
Q

Right lobe

A

Four lobes - cranial, middle, caudal, accessory
Not horse

Ruminants:

  • Look as though 5 lobes but two most cranial are supplied by the same lobar bronchus
  • Cranial and caudal parts of cranial lobe

Ruminant and pig: cranial lobe supplied by tracheal bronchus

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4
Q

Visceral (pulmonary) pleura

A

Attached to surface of lung including fissures - contains abundant elastic fibres

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5
Q

Parietal pleura

A

Derived from the somatic mesoderm and it lines the wall of the pleural cavity

3 compartments:

  1. Costal pleura: lines inside of lateral wall of ribcage
  2. Mediastinal pleura: lines the mediastinal
  3. Diaphragmatic pleura: lines the cranial surface of the diaphragm
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6
Q

Mediastinum

A

Parturition between left and right pleural sacs

Contains: heart in pericardiac sac, thoracic trachea, thoracic oesophagus, thymus, mediastinal LN, great vessels, nerves

Does not contain: lungs, caudal, vena cava, right prenic nerve

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7
Q

Pharynx

A

Connect orals cavity with oesophagus and nasal cavity with larynx
Soft palate seperates rostral part of pharynx into dorsal and ventral portion: nasopharynx and oropharynx

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8
Q

Larynx

A
Bilaterally symmetrical tube-shaped musculocartiligenous organ connects pharynx and trachea
Protects trachea from aspiration
Increases intra-abdominal pressure
Important for vocalisation
Richly innervated by vagus nerves
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9
Q

Caudal laryngeal nerve

A

Paralysis of left recurrent laryngeal nerve - stertorous sounds produced at inspiration (roaring) - air flow passively vibrating a lax adducted vocal fold

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10
Q

Pores of Kohn

A

Gaps in the alveolar septa to enable more efficient movement of inspired air between alveoli

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11
Q

Infant respiratory distress syndrome

A

Stiff lungs with low compliance
Alveolar collapse
Alveoli filled with transudate
Treat with synthetic surfactant

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12
Q

Exercise induced pulmonary haemorrhage (EIPH)

A

Small blood vessels in lung burst under high pressure and bleed into airway
Epistaxis in small proportion of EIPH cases
Racehorses

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13
Q

Pulmonary embolism

A

Obstruction to a branch of pulmonary artery
May be fatal if both pulmonary trunk or both pulmonary arteries are blocked
Enlargement of bronchial arteries by dilation
Angiogenesis: new bronchopulmonary arterial anastomoses - can bypass obstructed PA

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14
Q

Fick’s law

A

Rate of transfer through a sheet of tissue is proportional to the tissue area and the difference in partial pressure between the two sides and inversely proportional to the the tissue thickness

Area of the respiratory surface
Thickness of the respiratory surface
PO2 difference between alveolus and capillary
Pulmonary oedema

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15
Q

Guttural pouch

A

Air filled pouch

When infected, carotid artery bleed into nasal cavity and out of nose

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16
Q

Brachycephalic respiratory issues - anatomy

A

Larynx and nasal cavities - greatest resistance to airflow

Brachycephalics have:

  • Narrow nasal passages
  • Shorter jaw and misaligned teeth
  • Wider optical cavity
  • Longer nasal cavity

More resistance to airflow - increase respiratory effect
Longer soft palate - more effort, inflammation, less space - positive feedback

Narrow trachea, laryngeal collapse can occur

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17
Q

Tracheal collapse

A

Common in some breeds of dog e.g. Yorkshire terrier
Reduced exercise capacity
Not ventilating properly
Apply tracheal stent - good for younger dog

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18
Q

Pulmonary surfactant

A

Oppose surface tension
Polar phospholipid secreted from type II alveolar cells (pneumocytes)

Increases compliance, promotes alveoli stability, keeps alveoli dry

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19
Q

Alveoli emphysema

A

Sometimes die to ischaemia of alveolar wall due to obstruction of bronchial arterial supply or alveolar capillaries

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20
Q

Hormonal control of airway diameter

A

Presence of many beta2 adrenergic receptors:
- Highly sensitive to adrenaline

Cytokine production by inflammatory cells:

  • Mostly bronchoconstrictors (histamine, prostaglandin D2, F2alpha etc.)
  • Prostaglandin E2 and prostacyclin are bronchodilators
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21
Q

Haemoglobin

A

O2 binds loosely and reversibly with the heme portion of Hb
High PO2 - O2 binds to Hb
Low PO2 - O2 released from Hb

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22
Q

Bohr effect

A

Shift of oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve to the right due to increased CO2 concentration
Shift to the right enhances O2 unloading in the tissues and increasing oxygenation of blood in the lungs

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23
Q

The Haldane effect

A

Binding of O2 with Hb tends to displace from the blood
When O2 binds Hb in the lungs, the Hb becomes a stronger acid
Causes displacement of CO2 from blood to alveoli

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24
Q

Avian air sacs

A
1 interclavicular sac
2 cervical sacs
2 anterior thoracic sacs
2 posterior thoracic sacs
2 abdominal sacs

Act as bellows to ventilate the lungs

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25
Recurrent Airway Obstruction (RAO) (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) Horses
Hyperactive airway disease - due to straw bed and dry hay Usually bronchiolitis Mucus plugging of bronchioles Mucus flooding of adjacent alveoli Accumulation of neutrophils in airway lumen Decreased compliance, slightly impaired gas exchange, reduced arterial PO2, V/Q (ventilation/perfusion) mismatch, airway closure during expiration (air trapped) Short-term: atropine Longer term: bronchodilators, clenbuterol (s/e sweating, trembling, tachycardia, excitement), salbutamol (inhaled), iatropium (inhaled), steroids (dexamethasone, risk of laminitis), mucolytics Management
26
Nature of cough
Upper airway: harsh, loud, non-productive Lower airway: soft, muted productive Painful conditions: more muted cough
27
Normal respiratory rates
``` Horse: 8-15 Cow, sheep, pigs: 10-30 Goats: 25-35 Neonates - foal/calf: 20-40 Dog: 10-30 Cat: 24-42 Rabbit: 30-60 ```
28
Expriatory distres
Intrathoracic airway obstruction Bronchoconstriction - RAO Farmer's disease in cattle Tracheal collapse in dogs and horses
29
Orthopnoea
Difficulty breathing while recumbent | E.g. Pleural fluid accumulation, neonates, diaphragmatic hernia, congestive heart failure
30
Nasal discharge
Serous, mucoid, purulent, sanginous (haemorrhagic) Discharge of ingested food material or fluids e.g. dysphagia Profuse or scant, continuous or intermittent Unilateral: originate in structures rostral to the caudal end of the nasal septum although low volumes of discharge from lower in the respiratory tract can be unilateral Bilateral: caudal structures or bilaterally affected rostral structures Foul odour: may indicate anaerobic infection, necrotising conditions or connection to oral cavity Epistaxis or haemophysis (blood in the sputum)
31
Alveolar macrophage
Phagocyte resident within the alveolus - normally one per alveolus Ingest particles that reach the alveolus
32
Atelectasis
Primary atelectasis: failure of lung tissue to expand at birth Secondary atelectasis: acquired/collapse - Compression: pulmonary or mediastinal masses, prolonged recumbency in LA, prolonged abdominal distension in LA, hydrothorax, pneumothorax - Obstruction: common in cattle (lack of collateral ventilation between lobules, thick fibrous septums between lobules), due to bronchiolar obstruction by exudate, distended alveoli collapse as trapped air is absorbed, collapsed alveoli contain a little fluid and macrophages
33
Emphysema
Excessive air in the lung 1. Alveolar: permanent abnormal enlargement of air spaces distal to the terminal bronchioles often due to destruction of alveolar walls by neutrophil elastase (e.g. RAO) 2. Interstitial: septal lymphatics are dilated with air secondary to forced expiration e.g. pneumonia in cattle 3. Compensatory: emphysema is adjacent to an area of consolidation
34
Pigmentation
Melanosis: deposition in alveolar walls - health animal but meat may be condemned Anthracosis: accumulation of carbon in alveolar macrophages -has to be very severe to be clinical, keeps macrophages busy, causes infection
35
Hyperaemia
Increased blood flow into tissue - acute inflammation Affected areas of lungs are dark red in colour Cranioventral lungs often affected in association with aspiration pneumonia
36
Congestion
Decreased blood flow from tissue Diffuse in cardiac failure Grey/blue parts of lungs Terminal pulmonary congestion is also seen in animals euthanised with barbiturates
37
Pulmonary oedema
Flooding of alveoli by fluid - mixes with surfactant - foam - compromises ventilation Pathogenesis: - Cardiogenic - Neurogenic (sympathetic stimulation in acute brain damage - increases pulmonary capillary hydrostatic pressure) - Excessive fluid therapy - Damage to endothelium or epithelium - toxic substances, acute inflammation process - Haemorrhage, thrombosis, embolism, infarction
38
Rhinitis and sinusitis
Acute, subacute, chronic Localised or part of a systemic disease e.g. malignant catarrhal fever (herpesvirus) Infectious or non-infectious (allergic or idiopathic) Serous, catarrhal (mucoid), purulent/suppurative, necrotising, ulcerative, haemorrhagic Sequelae: resolution, healing by scar formation, extension to other parts of the respiratory tract Inflammation may localise and persist in the guttural pouches
39
Bronchopneumonia
Bacterial infection Cranioventral region of lung Spread by extension form lobule to lobule along the airways or by necrosis of alveoli and septa (toxin-producing bacteria) Sequelae: resolution, detrioration, (abscesses, pleuritis, death -hypoxaemia, toxaemia), persistance (fibrosis or bronchiectasis - permanent dilation of some bronchi)
40
Lobar pneumonia
Sequelae: commonly death, fibrosis of affected areas in surviving animals Pathogenesis: - Inhaled mycoplasmas and some viruses - Initially inflammatory reaction in the bronchioles - Interstitial lymphocytic proliferation often to the extent of forming complete lymphoid follicles around the airways ('cuffing') - Lymphoid follicles - cell mediated response to chronic persistent antigenic challenge - Mostly of economic importance - reduced growth rate
41
Interstitial pneumonia
Secondary to haematogenous rather than inhaled damage Inflammation is centred on interstitial septa rather than airways Diffuse distribution rather than cranioventral Acute: - Infections e.g. distemper - Inhaled chemicals e.g. smoke - Ingested toxins e.g. paraquet or tryptophan 'fog fever' - Systemic conditions e.g. uraemia - Hypersenstivity reactions e.g. lungworm Chronic: - Infections e.g. Jaagsieke in sheep - Inhaled dusts e.g. coal dust or silica
42
Paraquet
Herbicides, cats and dogs Pneumotoxin: selectively damages alveolar epithelium, allows exudation of fluid into the alveolar lumen - loss of respiratory function Low doses: accidental ingestion, moderate pulmonary oedema, clinical signs of respiratory distress - widespread fibrosis of alveolar walls interferes with gas exchange High doses: malicious, severe fatal pulmonary oedema, haemorrhages
43
Tryptophan
Acute Bovine Pulmonary Oedema and Emphysema 'Fog Fever' Adult cattle moved to lush pasture (autumn) High morbidity and mortality Pathogenesis: excess tryptophan in autumn grass metabolised in the rumen - toxic to type I pneumocytes Pathology: lungs enlarged and wet with markedly widened interlobar septa (oedema and emphysema) - flooding of alveolar with protein-rich fluid)
44
Granulomatous pneumonia
Caused by agents such as mycobacteria e.g. TB and fungi e.g. aspergillosis Inflammation is chronic and peristent Macrophages - predominant cell type Granulomas may be mistaken for tumours Acid-fast bacilli in mycobacterial infections - Ziehl-Neelsen (inset) Fungi stain with PAS or silver stains
45
Tumours and tumour-like lesions of the URT
Nasal and nasopharyngeal polyps: - Single or multiple (often pedunculated) masses secondary to chronic irritation/inflammation - Composed of hyperplastic or ulcerated epithelium, granulating to be fibrous stroma and varying numbers of inflammation cells Nasal and paranasal sinus tumours: usually malignant carcinomas or sarcomas
46
Lung neoplasia
Primary: usually invasive carcinomas, hilar region before spreading within lung and to regional LN Secondary: mostly metastases - mammary tumours, haemangiosarcoma and osteosarcoma
47
Paraneoplastic disease
Marie's disease: space occupying lesion in lungs maybe associated with periosteal thickening of long bones (hypertrophic pulmonary osteopathy)
48
Viral infections of the LRT
Influenza (horses, pigs, dogs) | Bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) (cattle)
49
Bordetella bronchiseptica
Strict aerobe, Gram negative rod, slow growing (48h) Normal inhabitant of URT Associated with kennel cough and bronchopneumonia following distemper Pathogenesis and pathology: - Initial trauma, viral infection - Adhesion to respiratory epithelium (cilia) of trachea - Proliferation of B. bronchiseptica in the airway - Release of toxins -> irritation and coughing - Epithelial necrosis - Peribronchial inflammation and interstitial pneumonia - Severe pneumonia sue to secondary invaders e.g. beta haemolytic streptococcus Pathogenecity: adherence to respiratory ciliated epithelium: FHA, fibriae, pertactin Toxins: adenylate cyclase (leucocyte toxin), tracheal cytotoxin (inhibits DNA synthesis in ciliated cells), dermonecrotic toxin CADP-ribosylation
50
Pasteurella multocida
``` Gram-negative rod Oxidase-positive Large grey mucoid colonies Strong catarrhal smell Secondary URT infections Common bacteria in dog bite wounds Capsular serotypes A and D (and Pasteurella pneumotropica) ``` Dogs and cats: severe suppurative pneumonia and pleuritis Rabbit snuffles: chronic nasal discharge and sneezing, (sometimes fatal) respiratory disease, colonisation of respiratory tract, middle ear, genitalia, (maybe) lungs
51
Streptococcus
Found in normal URT Beta Haemolytic Streptococci highly virulent in the lung Streptococcus zooepidemicus: - Many animal sp. esp horse and dog - Inhabits skin, respiratory mucosa - Secondary invader post viral disease in horses, wound infections Streptococcus canis M. proteins, toxins, capsules, superantigen
52
Actinomyces
Gram-positive, filamentous, branching Aerobic growth Commensal in canine oral cavity Cause of granulomatous thoracic infections in dogs Localised granulomatous abscesses of skin: chronic and progressive
53
Nocardia spp.
E.g. Nocardia asteroides (soil bacteria) Gram positive rods, thin, short filaments Partially acid fast Growth within and destruction of macrophages Chronic progressive, suppurating thoracic granulomas Resistance to penicillin and some other antimicrobials Prolonged use of TMP, tetracyclines, ampicillin Pathology: copious red-brown exudate in pleural cavity, may be chronic with adhesion formation
54
Chlamydophilia felis
Intracellular gram negative rods Conjunctivitis in cats, nasal discharge progresses to interstitial bronchopneumonia Vaccination
55
Canine nasal aspergillosis
Aspergillosis furnigatus Surgical delivery of antifungal Pathology: - Nasal turbinates progressively destroyed by chronic granulomatous (and eosinophilic) inflammation May be yellow green mycotic exudate in the caudal nasal cavity Numerous fungal hyphae on histopath exam Special stains: Grocott and PAS
56
Bovine respiratory disease complex | Enzootic pneumonia or 'shipping fever'
Bovine herpesvirus: IBR, fibrinous laryngitis and tracheitis, intranuclear viral inclusions, vaccines Bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV): Paramyxoviridae, URT infections, bronchitis, bronchiolitis, vaccines Bovine parainfluenza virus: Paramyxoviridae, aka parainfluenza3 (PI3), URT infections, vaccines
57
Bovine respiratory disease comples | Secondary infections
Mannheimia haemolytica: nasopharynx commensal - Epizootic (epidemic) pneumonia in cattle - shipping fever - Bovine pneumonia pasteurellosis: (And P. multicida), bronchopneumonia is fibrinous to necrotising, pleuritis frequent - Also indicated in meningitis and polyarthritis (2-4m housed calves) - Sporadic cases of peracute fatal mastitis in cow (from suckling calves may transfer the organism) Vaccination
58
Pasteurellosis in lambs
Septicaemia, severe pleuritis and pericarditis Alse severe mastitis in sheep and goats Pasteurella trehalosii: - Acute or peracute septicaemia in older lambs: 5-12m
59
Histophilus somni
``` Normally commensal in genital tract Transient URT Cause of peracute death in young calves: - Acute thromboembolic meningoencephalitis - Pneumonia - Mycocarditis ```
60
Mycobacterium
Gram positive, acid fast Strict aerobes, very slow growing Resistant to drying and chemical agents] Virulent species fully resist intracellular killing
61
Bovine tuberculosis
Chronic, eventually fatal, pneumonia and wasting Open case: continuous shedding from lesions excreting to the exterior e.g. kidney, udder Pathology: - Granulomatous pneumonia and lymphadenitis - Nodules have caseating ('cheesy') cut surface Camelids are very susceptible - extra zoonotic risk
62
Mycoplasma infections
Smallest living bacteria, inhibit mucosal surfaces (genital tract esp horses) Acquire host antigens to evade immune response Involved in Bovine Respiratory Disease Complex No cell wall, not susceptible to beta-lactam antibiotics Cattle: M. bovis - arthritis, mastitis (and pneumonia) Calves: - Progressive cranioventral consolidation in the main airways of affected lobules with thickening of the surrounding connective tissue - Lymphoid nodules and follicles around airways - may compress bronchial lumen - Mixed cellular exudate in airways, partial alveolar collapse - Slight thickening of alveolar walls with lymphocytes Mycoplasma mycoides subsp SC - contagious pleuropneumonia (cattle): - Notifiable, not in UK, USA, Australia - Serious disease in Asia, Africa, Southern Europe - Aerosol or close contact transmission - Fibrino-necrotic bronchopneumonia with fibrinous pleuritis, dorsocaudal areas may be affected, interstitial septa markedly widened by fibrinous exudate and oedema - Necrotic area may be encapsulated - Usually unilateral lung involved
63
Respiratory viruses of sheep
Parainfluenza virus (PI3) - occasionally lambs, pneumonia Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) Adenovirus (ovine and bovine) May predispose to infection with Mannheimia haemolytica as part of enzootic pneumonia complex in sheep
64
Fungi in respiratory disease | Cattle and sheep
``` Aspergillosis Mycopolysporium Fungal allergy: A. fumigatus and others 'Farmer's lung': coughing, weight loss, increased respiratory rate, decreased milk yield Type I: rhinitis and fungal asthma Type III: allergic alveolitis ```
65
Rhodococcus equi
Gram positive rod, variably acid fast Bacteria scavenged by alveolar macrophages but not killed - destruction of these macrophages leads to a pyogranulomatous response Chronic suppurative bronchopneumonia - foals 1-6m - Anorexia, depression, fever, dyspnoea, cough Foci of caseous necrosis in lungs High mortality rate (40-80%) Dissemination to other viscera can occur especially abdominal organs - liver and intestine - Depression, fever, diarrhoea, colic, weight loss/failure to grow, poor prognosis Treat: erythromycin and rifampin, clarithromycin or azthromycin with rifampin Adult horses are immune
66
Equine influenza virus (EIV)
Infection of URT that may spread to LRT and cause bronchitis and broncholiotis Cough, pyrexia, depression Secondary infections: Strep, Staph, Klebsiella Vaccinate requirement for competing horse in UK
67
Equine herpesvirus (EHV)
EHV1: respiratory disease, abortion, paresis EHV4: mainly respiratory disease, rarely abortion EHV5: equine multinodular pulmonary fibrosis, infection of URT, nasal discharge, coughing, pyrexia Vaccine EHV1 and EHV4 available
68
Equine arteritis virus
Arterviridae Infection of URT, systemic spread and infection of endothelial cells and macrophages May spread to lung in macrophages and cause interstitial pneumonia Nasal discharge, conjunctivitis, oedema, abortions Frequently subclinical if less virulent Notifiable in UK in stallions or in mares covered or inseminated in the last 14d
69
Equine guttural pouch mycoses
Aspergillosis nidulans, severe bleeding form the nose/dysphagia Treatment: local delivery of anti-fungals, ligation of carotid, systemic antifungals?
70
Atrophic rhinitis | Pigs
- Stimulate osteoclasts to resorb bone - Combination of early colonisation with Bordetella bronchisepta (dermonecrotic toxin - damages osteoblasts) and P. multocida (osteolytic toxin - stimulates osteoclasts) - Malformed twisted snout
71
Contagious pleuropneumonia | Pigs
``` Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae Acute or chronic fibrinohaemorrhagic pneumonia with pleurisy in intensive pig production Can kill in 24h Spreads throughout all lung lobes Pleural adhesions found in chronic cases ``` Actinobacillus suis: pleuopneumonia-like disease (mild) Haemophilus parasuis: - Glassers disease - Polyserositis (pleuritis, pericarditis, peritonitis) - Suppurative pneumonia - Meningitis and polyarthritis Mycoplasma hyopneumonia: - Enzootic pneumonia - Widespread, common, predisposes to other respiratory diseases - Transmitted by aerosol - Cranioventral consolidation and red/grey discoloration Other mycoplasma: M. hyosynoviae and M. hyorhinis
72
Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome (PRRS)
Arteriviridae Infection of URT, systemic spread in macrophages and endothelial cells (vasculitis) May cause respiratory signs and lead to interstitial pneumonia Part of porcine respiratory complex Weaned pigs, tachypnoea, thumping, eyelid oedema, conjunctivitis
73
Swine influenza
H1N1, H3N2, H1N2 Sudden outbreaks of respiratory disease with barking cough and respiratory distress in naive herds Bronchiolities and pneumonia
74
Aujeszky's disease Pseudorabies Pig
Porcine herpesvirus Sneezing, coughing, laboured breathing, fever and weight loss CNS disease in piglets, abortion, still birth, mummification Notifiable, Northern Ireland, Vaccinate
75
Porcine circovirus
Type 2 Immune suppressive - predispose pigs to other infections Porcine respiratory disease complex Post-weaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS) and porcine dematitis and nephropathy syndrome 2 vaccines available
76
Avian chlamydia
Psittacosis, zoonotic, notifiable Spleen and liver of psittacine birds - parrots, parakeets, macaws Faecal shedding - inhalation by other birds and humans
77
Mycoplasmas of poultry
M. gallisepticum: chronic respiratory disease - reduced growth, reduced egg production, adherence to ciliated epithelium, removes cilia, rare in UK M. synoviae: synovitis in poultry, may include URT disease M. meleagridis: air sacculitis in turkeys Transovarian (vertical) transmission and respiratory route Skeletal changes due to biotin deficiency
78
Equine influenza vaccination
1st vaccination -> 21-92d 2nd vaccination -> 150-215 3rd vaccination Horses may not race until 8d after vaccination Jockey club rules
79
Summer pasture associated pulmonary disease (SPAPD) Horses
Keep stabled | Allergens in pasture
80
Inflammatory airway disease (IAD) Horses
Young performance horse, 20-65% Excessive mucus in airways Cough and/or reduced performance Implied cause: - Bacterial (Strepococcus zooepidemicus, Strep pneumonia, Actinobacillus, Mycoplasma) - Viral - Blood from EIPH: causes inflammation and/or secondary infection
81
Kennel cough complex
Bordetella bronchiseptica: - Attaches to cilia in URT - Release of bacterial toxins damage the respiratory epithelium Canine parainfluenza virus (CPIV): - Mild respiratory disease - More severe if combined with Bordetella Canine adenovirus (CAV): - Type I: hepatitis (ICH) - Type II: respiratory disease ``` Canine herpesvirus1 (CHV1): systemic and often fatal in neonate puppies Canine respiratory corona virus: mild respiratory disease, highly contagious Mycoplasma: various types ``` Cough, retching, nasal +/- ocular discharge, sneezing Systemic: depression, pyrexia, inappetence, bronchopneumonia Treat: rest, antibiotics, cough suppressants, bronchodilators, mucolytics, supportive care
82
Intranasal vaccines
Stimulates mostly IgA and mostly on mucosal surface Serum IgG also produced but at lower levels compared to parenteral application Advantages: stimulates local response in respiratory tract, act more rapidly compared to systemic vaccines Disadvantages: shorter duration of immunity, difficulty to administer to unco-operative dogs At least 5d before kennelling
83
Canine distemper
Morbillovirus Shed in all body fluids, spread by aerosol or close contact Dogs with insufficient immune response: - Spreads to epithelial cells of respiratory, GI and urinary tract and CNS - Immunosuppression - secondary bacterial infections - Typically interstitial pneumonia but frequently secondary infection thus more likely bronchointerstitial Nasal/ocular discharge, cough, D, V, depression, anorexia CNS signs: - Seizures, inco-ordination, paresis/paralysis, muscle tremors, ocular lesions (degeneration of retina, optic neuritis) - Neuronal destruction - Demyelination - Intra-nuclear and intra-cytoplasmic viral inclusion bodies - Hard pad and hard nose - hyperkeratosis - Distemper teeth: dogs that develop distemper before they have their permanent teeth - hypoplasia of the enamel Treat: antibiotics, fluids, sedatives, anti-convulsives
84
Bronchial pattern
Mineralisation of the bronchial wall - age related change Thickening of bronchial wall and/or increased diameter End-on appearance of the bronchus Increase bronchial diameter with no evidence of tapering of the bronchus in the periphery - bronchiestasis
85
Interstitial patterns
Elements of lung that don't contain air Classifed as local or diffuse and nodular or unstructured (hazy) Metastatic neoplasia Other Dx: haematoma, granulomas, fluid filled bronchi, abscesses Pulmonary masses i.e. primary neoplasia: larger than nodules and may cause displacement of the mediastinal structures Unstructured (hazy) interstitial pattern: - Diffuse: Underexposed, taken during expiration, 'old dog lung,' lymphoma, pneumonia, disease in transition - Localised: partial lung collapse, haemmorrhage/contusion, pulmonary embolism, bronchial FB, diseases in transmission
86
Alveolar pattern
Lack of air in alveoli Uniform increased lung opacity with no visibility of pulmonary vessels in the affected area Localised: bronchopneumonia, oedema, haemorrhage, neoplasia, lung collapse/atelectasis Diffuse: severe bronchopneumonia, severe oedema, near-drowning, smoke-inhalation
87
Vascular pattern
Enlarged arteries: pulmonary hypertension Enlarged veins: congestion due to mitral insufficiency Enlarged As and Vs: overcirculation Smal As and Vs: hypovolaemia, tetralogy of Fallot
88
Pleural cavity
Visibility increased by thickening of the pleural membrane or increased volume of pleural fluid result in widening of the pleural fissures Pneumothorax: Radiolucent space between the cardiac silhouette and sternum, lack of pulmonary vessels in the periphery of the thorax Pleural fluids: generalised increased opacity in the thoracic cavity, loss of clarity of the cardiac silhouette and diaphragmatic outline
89
Mediastinum
Contains trachea, oesophagus, heart, aorta and major branches, thoracic duct, lymph nodes, and nerves V/D cranial mediastinum should not exceed 2x width of vertebral bodies Displacement? Pneumo-mediastinum: - Radiolucency in the mediastinum with increased visibility of blood vessels, oesophagus and tracheal wall - Secondary to pneumo-mediastinum: gas lucency into the fascial planes of the neck and thoracic wall, pneumo-retroperitoneum Mediastinal mass: - Soft tissue opacity - Displacement of adjacent structures e.g. the trachea - Thymus is normally visible in young animals - Neoplasia, abscess, granulomas, cysts, sternal lymphadenopathy and oesophageal dilation (secondary to vascular ring anomaly)
90
Diaphragm
Thoracic surface usually visible because of adjacent gas filled lungs Abdominal surface not usually seen due to 'silhouettin' with adjacent liver Normal intersection point of diaphragm and spine is usually between T11 and T13 (T9-L1) Caudal vena cava passes through the caval hiatus
91
Obstructive disease | Dyspnoeic dog or cat
Significant amount of URT or significant number of small airways of LRT Nasal obstruction: rhinitis, FB, neoplasia, polyp Trauma, laryngeal paralysis, FB, tracheal collapse Brachycephalic obstructive airway disease: soft palate, stenotic nares, laryngeal collapse Fillaroides, asthma, extralumenal mass lesions
92
Loss of thoracic capacity | Dyspnoeic dog or cat
Fluid/air in pleural space Organs displaced from abdomen Less common: neoplasia, marked cardiomegaly Differential diagnoses: Pleural effusion, pneumothorax, neoplasia, ruptured diaphragm, gross cardiomegaly, cranial abdominal organ enlargment, PPDH (periocardio-peritoneo-diaphragmatic hernia)
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Pulmonary parenchymal disease | Dyspnoeic dog or cat
Compromising gas exchange Diffusion abnormalities due to disease of the alveolar wall and interstitium Alveolar flooding with oedema, blood or exudate Abnormal pulmonary vascular supply Thromboembolism V/Q mismatch Differentials: bronchopneumonia, pulmonary oedema, neoplasia, pulmonary haemorrhage, pulmonary fibrosis, LRT parasites
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Cat Flu
Feline infectious upper respiratory disease complex Common problem in cat Groups of cats Feline herpesvirus, feline calicivirus, Chlamydophila felis, Bordetella, Mycoplasma, Reovirus, Cowpox
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Feline viral rhinotracheitis
Conjunctivitis, rhinitis, tracheitis, laryngitis Sneezing, hypersalivation, serous or mucopurulent oculonasal discharge Dendritic corneal ulcers Repro problems: abortion, congenitally infected kittens (encephalitis and hepatitis)
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Feline calicivirus
Oral ulceration Rhinitis, conjunctivitis, interstitial pneumonia Arthritis/lameness syndrome Concurrent infections: FIV/FeLV Treatment: nursing care, patient support - Assist respiration: clear secretion from external nares, decongestants, nebulise saline - Fluids - Nutrition - Antibiotics - Interferon? Aciclovir? Trifluorothymidine?
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Chronic bronchitis
Chronic irritation to bronchial mucosa, mucosal hypoplasia, increased mucus production, decreased efficacy of respiratory defence mechanisms Bronchospasm, reduced airflow, chronic cough Old small breed overweight dogs Insidious onset, dry, hacking cough Drugs: - Bronchodilators (theophylline, terbutaline, adrenaline, atropine) - Antibiotics - Expectorants/mucolytics - Cough suppressants - Anti-inflammatory medicine
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Feline asthma
aka Feline Allergic Airway Disease (FAAD) Most common cause of persistent coughing Antigenic stimulus: inflammation, mucous, oedema and bronchoconstriction Tracheal wash: inflammatory population with predominate eosinophils Maintenance: - Corticosteroid - tapered, nebulise - Bronchodilators: terbutaline, theophylline
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Aelurostrongylus
Feline lungworm Occasionally results in clinical signs Alveolar/intersitial disease Prolonged course of Fenbendazole
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Canine Lungworm
Angiostrongylus vasorum, Filaroides (Osterus) Osteri, Dirofilaria, other filaroides sp, crenosoma Eosinophilia, evidence of parasite larvae 7d of fenbendazole Milbemycin and moxidectin specifically licensed
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Tracheal collapse
Loss of normal tracheal ring structure Cervical trachea collapses on inspiration Thoracic trachea collapses on expiration 'Goose honk' cough Yorkshire terriers and poodles, 4-7y Fluoroscopy - grade I-IV Treat: - Medical management like chronic bronchitis - Surgery - high risk, intralumenal stent (palliative), placement of prosthetic rings around the trachea
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Foreign bodies
Persistent focus of irritation, infection and airway obstruction Cough +/- focal pneumonia Treat: endoscopy +/- surgery
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Pulmonary infiltrate with eosinophils (PIE) | Dogs
May be immune-mediated, seasonal, associated with atopy Eosinophila, bronchial/alveolar pattern, bronchoscopy Treat: - Control secondary infection - Corticosteroids at immunosuppresive doses
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Pleural effusion
Septic effusion - fever and pain Trauma - diaphragmatic hernia Neoplastic effusion Hypoproteinaemia Fluid: cytology, Gram stain, total protein, triglyceride and cholesterol levels, bacterial culture and sensitivity Hyperglobulinaemia in a cat with FIP Specific tests: clotting times, virus titres (FeLV, FIV, FIP) Radiography - before and after thoracocentesis Ultrasound: Detection of masses with mediastinum and pleura, enhanced by presence of fluid, diaphragmatic hermia
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Specific pleural diseases
Lung lobe torsion - surgery Right side heart failure - management of heart failure Neoplastic effusion - surgery or chemotherapy Transudate due to hypoproteinaemia FIP Diaphragmatic hernia - surgery
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Pyothorax
Highly inspissated and viscous nature of the pleural fluid Drainage unlikely to be sufficient Systemic antibiotic administration unlikely to penetrate Implant drains and flush cavity - 5-7d and then antibiotics for 4-6 weeks Consider exploratory thoracotomy
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Chylothorax
Failure of lymph to drain via thoracic duct into the venous circulation - neoplasia, heart failure, idiopathic Medical: low fat diet and rutin (50mg/kg q8-12h) - May lead to a reduction in fluid formation - Fluid can be drained intermittently - reasonable quality of life - Consider diuresis Surgery: - Identification and ligation of all the branches of the thoracic duct and/or provide alternative route for drainage of the pleural fluid - Pleurodesis also suggested - adhesions between visceral and perietal pleura - destroyed pleural space
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Pneumothorax
Small volumes resorbed over a few days If respiratory distress, drainage of pleural air necessary (dorsal thoracocentesis) Large/recurrent volume of air/obvious lesion: surgical exploration, identification of the leak and surgical correction
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Equine pleuropneumonia
Pasteurella spp., Bordatella spp., Bacteroides spp. (aerobes) - Cranioventral distribution Pyrexia, lethargy, slight nasal discharge, shallow breathing, guarded cough, painful stilted gait, pleurodynia Nostril flare, tachycardia, increased jugular pulse height, toxic mm, guarded soft moist cough, foetid nasal discharge Ventral dullness, ultrasound, xray, transtracheal aspirate, thoracocentesis Remove excess pleural fluid, antibiotics, anti-inflammatory and analgesia, supportive care Complications: pulmonary abscesses, pleural adhesions, bronchopleural fistula, constrictive pericarditis, thromboplebitis
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Bovine respiratory disease (BRD)
Painful, Expensive and Time consuming Death, Poor or reduced growth Welfare Chronic: Environment Colostrum (blood samples TP >5.5), mixing, transport, home bred or purchased, nutrition, standard of husbandry Enzootic pneumonia: flare up, group of calves, reduced feed intake, dull, dry or moist coughing, pyrexia (>40), respiration (>40), tracheal pinch, conjunctivitis, oculonasal discharge, cranioventral Mycoplasma dispar, bovis, canis, Ureaplasma spp., BVDV, PI3, BRSV, IBR, Bovine coronavirus Less common: Reovirus 1, 2, 3, adenovirus 1, 2, 3, 4, rhinovirus 1, enterovirus, PI2 More serious infections: Mannhaemia haemolytica A1 and 6, Pasteurella multocida, Arcanobacterium pyogenes, Histophilus somni - DEATH Treatment (>39.7), correct environment, PME, identify pathogens, revisit, consider vaccination
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Bovine herpesvirus 1
Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis Pyrexia, conjunctivitis, cough, tracheitis Can progress to pneumonia Genital form: - Female: infectious pustular vulvovaginitis - Male: Balanoposthitis Ocular form, encephalitis, abortion, reproductive failure Latent infection: - Resides in trigeminal ganglion - can last indefinitely - Can recrudesce, reactivate and start shedding again after very long period - Recrudescence due to stress - Cannot reliably detect Status of herd: - Dairy: bulk milk antibody titres regularly - Beef: sample cohort - Monitor abortions - Investigate pneumonia Vaccinate - works well, reduce level of virus and shedding
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Calf Diptheria | Necrotic laryngitis
Fusobacterium necrophorum Lesions in mouth, tongue, larynx - foul smelling necrotic lesions Can be cause by food trapped between teeth and buccal mucosa, sharp teeth, poor hygiene of feeding equipment Excessive salivation, foul breath, swollen cheeks and abscesses in cheek region, increased respiratory noise, auscultate over larynx and trachea Antibiotics, tracheostomy or surgery
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Chronic hyperplastic rhinitis | Whippets, Dachshunds and cats
Prolonged inflammatory processes with nasal cavity stimulate hyperplasia of mm and increased mucous secretion Rhinotimy and turbinectomy
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Intranasal neoplasia
Most malignant: solid carcinoma or adenocarcinoma, chrondro, fibro, osteo -sarcoma Exploratory rhinotomy Benign polypoid rhinitis
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Defects in the secondary palate
Congenital: failure of fusionn unable to suckle, nasal return of milk, aspiration pneumonia, chronic nasal discharge (mild) Acquired: forceful separation - direct trauma or tooth extraction, aspiration pneumonia, chronic nasal discharge, sneezing
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BOAS surgery
Rhinoplasty Staphylectomy Resection of everted mucosa of lateral laryngeal ventricles Temporary tracheostomy (optional)
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Tracheostomy
Ventral midline skin incision - 2-4 caudal to the larynx Separate sternohyoid/sternothyroid muscles midline to reveal the ventral trachea Long stay sutures of 2-0 monofilament nylon are placed around tracheal rings with two tracheal ring separating them Tranverse incision is made before 4th and 5th tracheal rings between the stay suture Tube placed into the tracheal lumen Skin is closed around the tracheostomy tube and the tube is secured by passing umbilical tape or similar around neck Pre-placed stay sutures are tied in a loose bow Care: - Constant monitoring - Insert sleeve removed and cleaned every 2h - Nebulise every 4h - Limit physical activity - Suction tube only if necessary
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Laryngeal paralysis
Congenitial: Bouvier des Flandres, Husky Acquired (known): trauma, neoplasia, secondary polyneuropathy/polymyopathy Acquired (idiopathic): Lab, Retriever, Setter, Afghan, St. Bernard Chronic progressive exercise intolerance, dysphonia, increased respiratory noise, chronic cough, cyanosis and collapse Left arytenoid lateralisation: suturing of the arytenoid to the thyroid or cricoid
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Laryngeal neoplasia
``` Rare but malignant Congenital rhabdomyosarcoma (oncocytoma), squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, chondrosarcoma, fibrosarcoma, lymphoma (cat) ``` Dysphonia, sonorous respiration, exercise intolerance, respiratory distress
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Tracheal trauma
Neck bite wounds, traumatic intubation, blunt trauma to chest (cats) Subcutaneous emphysema, pneumomediastinum, pneumothorax Positive contrast study using water soluble, organic iodide solutions, bronchoscopy, exploratory surgery Treat: conservative therapy if stable, surgical therapy warranted if progressive and respiratory distress is severe
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Spontaneous pneumothorax
Lung suspected as the leak and no history of trauma Ruptured pulmonary bullae or blebs, migrating inhaled plant material, bacterial pneumonia, chronic obstructive lung diseases, asthma, TB, pulmonary neoplasia airway parasite (filaroides) Stabilise, surgically explore and remove disease lung, prolonged pleural evacuation
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Lung lobe torsion
Uncommon Narrow, deep chests - more frequent Right middle and cranial lung lobes Pleural effusions (chylothorax), trauma, thoracic surgery, neoplasia and chronic respiratory disease Depressed, inappetent, febrile, dyspnoea and a cough, muffled lung sounds, thoracocentesis, u/s, xray, CT Lobectomy
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Diaphragmatic rupture
Muscular (weakest) part of the diaphragm Effusion can lead to hydrothorax and compromise lung volume Muffled heart sounds, loss of lung sounds, dull thoracic percussion and an 'empty' abdomen Gastric decompression or emergency surgery
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Peritoneopericardial diaphragmatic hernia (PPDH)
Failure of septum transversum to advance leaving space between the two advancing lateral pleuroperitoneal folds of failure of the lateral pleuroperitoneal OR Failure of the lateral pleuroperitoneal folds to unite or as a result of intrauterine trauma May be associated with other developmental defects (sternal and ventral abdominal wall fusion defects, VSD, PS, ASD and PSS) Repair asap in young animals to reduce risk of adhesions May be elective in asymptomatic older patients
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Oesophageal hitial hernia (EHH)
Defect in the formation of the oesophageal hiatus Chinese Shar Pei Chronic gastrointestinal reflux, regurgitation, vomiting Leading to chronic oesophagitis, oesophageal hypomotility and aspiration pneumonia Close hiatus and make sure stomach stays in the abdomen
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Thoracic wall trauma
Non-penetrating can be managed conservatively Penetrating: - Undergo exploratory thoracotomy around traumatic thoracic opening - Removal or injured or devitalised tissue, provision of pleural damage and closure of thoracic wall (native tissues or synthetic mesh) Stabilise fractured ribs, consider ventilation
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Thoracic wall tumours
Osteosarcoma and chrondosarcoma from costeochondral junction Haemangiosarcoma, fibrosarcoma, mast cell tumours, infiltrative lipomas can also occur Full thickness resection and reconstruction of thoracic wall
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Bovine Lungworm
Dictyocaulus viviparous - Trichostrongyle - found in trachea and larger bronchi - Husk, hoose Penetration phase (week 1): Larvae migrate to lungs Prepatent period (weeks 1-3): Development and migration of larvae -> bronchiolitis -> eosinophilic exudate -> blocks passage of air -> alveolar collapse distal to blockage Patent phase (weeks 4-8): - Worms mature and egg-producing - Bronchitis (due to adult worms) - Parasitic pneumonia (areas of consolidation due to re-aspiration of eggs and larvae -> cellular infiltrate by polymorphs, macrophages, FB, giant cells) Post-patent phase (weeks 8-12): - Most of worms expelled - Clinical signs flare up in 25% cases - alveolar epithelialisation, interstitial emphysema, pulmonary oedema, secondary bacterial infection Baerman technique, second half of grazing season, diaphragmatic lobes - plum-coloured, Vaccinate 1st season calves, anthelmintic - doremectin
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Ovine lungworm
Dictyocaulus filaria (less important: Muellerius, Protostrongylus) Outbreaks unpredictable - treat affected stock, house/move to clean grazing
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Equine lungworm
Dictycaulus arnfeildi Raised area of over-inflated pulmonary tissue, hyperplastic bronchial epithelium, peribronchial 'cuffing' Grazed with donkeys Ivermectin
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Canine lungworm
Angiostrongylus vasorum: - Metastrongyloid nematode - Indirect - Cardiorespiratory signs, coagulopathies, neurological signs - Baerman technique - Prepatent period 6-10w - Bloods: hypochromic anaemia, eosinophilia, co-agulopathy tests, ELISA - Moxidectin, Milbemycin, Fenbendazole - Control Filaroides (Oslerus) osleri: - Atypical metastrongyloid nematode - Direct - Adult worms in tracheal nodules - Diagnosis difficult - Baerman technique, endoscope - Fenbendazole
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Feline lungworm
Aelurostrongylus abstrusus - Uncommon - Typical metastrongyloid - Indirect - Faecal exam - Baerman technique - Fenbendazole
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Pre-weaned pigs
``` Progressive atrophis rhinitis Bordetella bronchisepticum Inclusion body rhinitis (pig CMV) Enzootic pneumonia (Mycoplasma sp) PRRSV Glasser's disease (Haemophilus parasuis) ```
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Weaners, growers and finishers
``` Bordetella bronchiseptica Glasser's disease Actinobacillus pleuropneumonia Pasteurella multocida Mycoplasma hyopneumonia (EP)/hyorrhinis PRRSV Porcine respiratory coronavirus (PRCV) Influenza PMWS/PCVAD (Aujeszky's disease - pig herpesvirus 1) ```
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Specific respiratory disease in non-immune adult pigs
``` Glasser's disease Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae Pasteurellosis Enzootic pneumonia PRRSV Influenza ```
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Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae
Great economic importance Weaned pigs, increased cough, variance in growth, secondary infection 30-80% pigs have lung lesions at slaughter
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Actinobacillus plueropneumonia
Explosive outbreaks of pneumonia with high morbidity and mortality to seroconversion with few clinical signs Acute fatal respiratory disease with fibrinous pleuritis and firm lung infarcts (lesions largely produced by the toxins) - caudal lung lobe
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Aujeszky's disease
Swine herpesvirus type 1 | Notifiable, not present in UK
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Swine influenza virus
``` Rapid involvement of up to 100% pigs Pyrexia, lethargic, prostrate Skin erythema, anorexia Severe, coughing, sneezing, dyspnoea Conjunctivitis Recovery equally rapid (5d) Pregnant sows may abort ```
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Sudden death | Sheep
Peracute pneumonia: Mannheimia haemolytica, 'Enzootic pneumonia' Septicaemia
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Acute/sub-acute ill health, cough +/- discharges, fever
``` Acute bacterial/viral pneumonias (fever) Aspiration pneumonia (fever) Parasitic pneumonia (no fever) ```
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Chronic ill-thrift, occasional cough | Lambs
``` Chronic pneumonia (Mycoplasma, resolved enzootic pneumonia) Lung damage - poor weight gain ```
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Chronic weight loss and breathing difficulties | Adult sheep
'Slow virus' diseases - Maedi-Visna, Sheep Pulmonary Adenomatosis Lung tissue replaced with solid tissues Only 1-2 animals affected at a time
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Ovine pneumonia agents
Mannheimia haemolytica, Pasteurella trehalosi (Pasteurella multocida, Bordetella papertussis) Mycoplasmas PI3, adenovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, reovirus
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Enzootic pneumonia | Sheep
Mannheimia haemolytica | Sudden death, fever, depressed, inappetent, dyspnoea, cough, nasal discharge, death, poor thrift
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Maedi-visna
Lentivirus (slow virus) Visna (wasting) and mastitis Mainly vertical transmission 3y+, slow progression of signs, emaciation, severe respiratory distress +/- cough, nasal discharge
147
Sheep pulmonary adenomatosis
Jaagsiekte Herpesvirus and adenovirus - slow progressive lung adenocarcinomas Long incubation Respirato transmission and vertical
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Strangles | Classical acute disease
Streptococcus equi equi Highly infectious 1-5y Incubation period 2-6y, nasal shedding for 3-6w (may shed asymptomatically for years) Classical: - Fever, depression, inappetence, cough, nasal discharge - Abscessation of mandibular or retropharyngeal LNs - rupture after 7-10d - no antibiotics, nursing, anti-pyretics, soft food - Dyspnoea and dysphagia if abscesses compress larynx or interferes with cranial nerve to pharynx - Mucoid to purulent nasal discharge Early clinical signs: penicillin
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Atypical strangles
Looks likes any respiratory tract infection Internal abscessation - long term antibiotics penicillin or trimethoprim) Purpura haemorrhagica: - Generalised vasculitis - type III hypersensitivity reaction - Death - pneumonia, cardiac arrhythmia, renal failure, GI disorders - Penicillin, dexamethasone (0.05-0.2mg/kg) or prednisolone (0.5-1 mg/kg), NSAIDs, fluids Other complications: - Anaemia - GP empyema and chondroids - draina and antibiotics - Retropharyngeal abscessation - Laryngeal hemiplegia - Horner's syndrome - Abscesses of mammary glands - CNS abscesses - Endocarditis or myocarditis - Agalactia - Tracheal compression dye to cranial mediastinal LN abscess - Suppurative bronchopneumonia - Myopathies
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Sinusitis in horses
Dental diseases: 09-11 (M1, M2, M3) Bacterial, fungal Neoplasia Possible concurrent signs: decreased air flow, facial swelling, dullness on percussion Medical: lavage and antibiotics Surgical: - Sinoscopy (including fenestration on ventral conchal bulls (VCB) - Removal nod inciting cause - Flap sinusotomy
151
Guttural pouch empyema
Bacterial infection - often Streptococcus equi Endoscopy, xray - chondroids (inspissated pus) Medical: Pouch lavage, antibiotics (penicillin and TMPS), remove choroids if necessary Surgery: Viborg's triangle approach for drainage, ventral paramedian approach for chondroid removal, dyspnoeic horses may require tracheostomy
152
Sites of URT obstruction in horses
Nostrils: alar fold/collapse/flutter, incomplete dilation of the nares Nasal passages: septal disease, small nasal passages, eruption bumps (tubercula transitoria), mass lesions Sinuses (expansile lesions): cysts, mass lesions Pharynx: - Dorsal displacement of the soft palate (DDSP): neuromuscular dysfunction - palatal and/or peripharyngeal musculature, dynamic endoscopy, Llewelyn technique/thermal palatoplasty/laryngeal 'tie-forward' - Postural compression (nasopharyngeal collapse) - Pharyngeal cysts: subepiglottic, dorsal pharyngeal Larynx: - Recurrent laryngeal neuropathy ('roaring'): Degenerate axonopathy of recurrent laryngeal nerve - left side, impaired function of cricoarytenoideus dorsalis muscle - Epiglottic entrapment: envelopment of the epiglottis by the subepiglottic mucosa and aryepiglottic folds, midline division of the entrapping tissue - Arytenoid chondritis:chronic infection of the body of the arytenoid cartilage resulting in thickening and intraluminal granulations
153
Progressive ethmoidal haematoma (PEH) | Horses
Progressively enlarging, non-neoplastic mass lesion originating in the ethmoid turbinate May expand to occupy the nasal passages, maxillary and frontal sinuses or nasopharynx - Radically excise - Laser treatment - Intralesional formulin
154
Guttural pouch mycoses
Fungal infection (Aspergillosis spp.) - roof of the medial compartment near the articulation of the stylohyoid bone with the temporal bone Epistaxis: ligation, balloon occlusion or coil occlusion of affected vessels Mycotic lesion: systemic/topical antifungals, antiseptics
155
Atheroma | Horses
Sebaceous cyst in the nasal diverticulum Noticed shortly after birth and grow through the 1st/2nd year Unilateral/bilateral Cosmetic
156
Sinus cysts | Horses
Congenital cystic dysplasia of sinus mucosa 1.5y with facial swelling Decreased air flow on affected side, nasal discharge, epiphora Breakdown of cysts via flap sinuscopy
157
Sinus neoplasia | Horses
Squamous cell carcinoma Many varieties of sarcoma also reported Facial swelling, decreased airflow on affected side, nasal discharge, epiphora Excision via flap sinusotomy, laser obilteration
158
Guttural pouch tympany
Excessive air accumulation of air in the guttural pouch Congenital: neonates, due to abnormal formation of pharyngeal opening of the pouch Acquired: older foals, yearlings, due to swelling involving pharyngeal opening of pouch Tympanic swelling in parotid region, unilateral or bilateral
159
Assessing radiographs roentgen method
``` Size Shape Opacity Margination (contour) Position Number ```