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Veterinary Medicine > Reproduction > Flashcards

Reproduction Flashcards

1
Q

Steroids

A

Made from cholesterol in adrenal cortex, testis, ovary, placenta
Mode of action:
- Freely enter target cells
- Interacts with specific receptor molecules inside cell
- Receptor hormone complex -> nucleus

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2
Q

Progestagens

A

Prepare uterus to receive embryo and maintains uterus during pregnancy
Stimulates mammary gland growth (suppresses milk secretion)
Regulates secretions of gonadotrophins (FSH, LH) produced by pituitary gland

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3
Q

Androgens

A

Differentiation of male tissue in embryo and secondary sexual characteristics
Supports spermatogenesis
Influences aggressive and sexual behaviour
Regulates secretions of gonadotrophins (FSH, LH)

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4
Q

Oestrogens

A

Secondary sexual characteristics
Prepare uterus for sperm transport
Stimulate growth and activity of mammary gland, gonads and endometrium
Regulates of gonadotrophins (FSH, LH)

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5
Q

Eicosanoids

A 
Derived from arachidonic acid (AA)
Local hormone (half life 10 mins)
Leukotrienes and prostaglandins
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6
Q

Prostaglandins

A 
Erection and ejaculation
Luteal regression
Ovulation
Uterine contraction
Uterine contraction
Cervical softening
Milk ejection
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7
Q

Protein and peptide hormones

A

Mode of action:

  • Via plasma membrane receptors binding to receptors generate secondary messengers
  • Activation of kinases
  • Phosphorylates proteins -> physiological action

Glycoproteins: FSH, LH
Polypeptide: ACTH, prolactin (PRL)
Peptides: Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH), oxytocin (OT)

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8
Q

Hypothalamic

A

Small part of brain - behavioural and stress responses
Neuroendocrine centre
Many pass to pituitary gland for processing

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9
Q

Cortico-release hormone (CRH)

A

Stimulates ACTH secretion (ACTH -> adrenal gland -> cortisol)

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10
Q

Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH)

A

Stimulates growth hormone release

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11
Q

Dopamine (DA)

A

Inhibit prolactin release

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12
Q

Gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH)

A

Stimulates LH and FSH release
Half life 7 mins
Pulsatile secretion

  • Neural control -> pulsatile release
  • Non-neural control -> more sustained release

Synthesised by nerve cell bodies in hypothalamus -> arterial pituitary via blood -> anterior pituitary secrete LH, FSH

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13
Q

FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)

A

Growth and maturation of ovarian follicle
Acts mainly on granulosa (surrounds oocyte) cells of follicle
Artificially stimulate multiple ovulation for IVF
Affects spermatogenesis in testis - acts on Sertoli cells
Stimulates formation of oestradiol in ovary and testis (with LH)

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14
Q

Luteinising hormone

A

Pulsatile secretion - frequency and amplitude vary - control ovarian cycle
Pre-ovulation surge of LH -> follicle rupture and ovulation
Regulates progesterone synthesis after ovulation in CL
Stimulates formation of oestradiol in ovary with FSH
Regulate testosterone synthesis in testis - Leydig cells

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15
Q

Oxytocin-uterine contraction

A

Afferent sensory nerve impulse -> spinal cord -> midbrain -> produced in hypothalamus -> posterior pituitary -> myometrium to contract

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16
Q

Oxytocin - milk ejection reflex

A

Neural hormonal reflex
Afferent sensory nerve impulses -> spinal cord -> midbrain -> hypothalamus -> neurosecretory cells to discharge oxytocin form axons end in posterior pituitary -> bloodstream -> stimulates myoepithelial in ducts of lactating mammary glands to contract
Milk from alveoli to ducts to nipple to infant
Stimulate increased prolactin secretion - duct development and milk synthesis

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17
Q

Sertoli cells

A

Inside seminiferous tubules
Spermatocytes receive testicular proteins via Sertoli cell gap junction
Spermatocytes and spermatids physically attached to Sertoli cells
Removes material from elongating spermatid during cytoplasmic condensation - removal of excess cytoplasm
All linked by gap junctions - communication throughout tubule
Mediate actions of hormones on spermatogenesis

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18
Q

Spermatogenesis

A

Mitotic proliferation:

  • Large numbers of spermatogonia (diploid) produced
  • Basal compartment of tubule

Meiotic division:

  • Spermatocytes -> spermatids
  • Adluminal compartment of tubule

Cytodifferentiation:

  • Packages genes for delivery to oocyte
  • Elongating spermatid -> spermatozoa
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19
Q

Testosterone

A

Synthesised by Leydig cells - between seminiferous tubules
Passes into blood and seminiferous tubules
Sertoli cells convert testosterone -> dihydrotestosterone - passes into testicular fluid - stimulate male reproductive tract

LH stimulate Leydig cells to make testosterone
FSH stimulates production of androgen receptor proteins in Sertoli cells

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20
Q

Epipdidymal maturation

A

Sperm structure: loss of surplus cytoplasm, condenstaion of nuclear chromatin

Sperm membranes: surface glycoproteins added, membrane fluidity and lipid compisition change

Metabolism: Depressed - prolong life, increased dependence on external fructose

Motility: increase cAMP content of tail

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21
Q

Seminal plasma composition

A

(From prostrate, seminal vesicles, ampulla)
Glycoproteins - decapacitation factors
Fructose and sorbital - energy
Citric acid - stops cell coagulation
Acid phosphatase - phospholipid metabolism
Buffers
Ascorbic acid - protect sperm from oxidation
Prostaglandins - muscle contraction in female tract

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22
Q

Penis shaft

A

Corpus cavernosum - main body
Corpus spongiosum - urethra
Blood reservoirs during erection

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23
Q

Fibroelastic penis

A

Bull, boar, ram

Limited erectile tissue, sigmoid flexure

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24
Q

Sigmoid flexure

A

Retract penis inside body until erection
Help by retractor penis muscle
Contract - held in
Relax - protrusion

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25
Q

Musculovascualr penis

A

Stallion
Large corpus cavernosum - fills with blood
No sigmoid flexure
Retractor penis muscle

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26
Q

Erection and ejaculation

A

Stimulation of pelvic nerve, arterial dilation, increased blood flow to corpus cavernosum
Retractor penis muscle relaxes (sigmoid flexure straightens)
Muscles of vas deferens, smeinal vesicles and prostrate contract
Spermatozoa and seminal plasma expelled
May be fractions

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27
Q

Follicles

A

Females born with fixed number of primordial follicles
Contains granulosa and theca - hormone producing
And gamete - oocyte

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28
Q

Folliculogenesis

A

Primordial follicle:
- 1 primary oocyte, 1 layer of pre-granulosa

Primary follicle:

  • Increased oocyte size
  • 1 layer of cuboidal granulosa cells
  • Zona pellucida separates oocyte from granulosa cells

Secondary follicle:

  • Multiple layers of granulosa cells - oocytes fully grown
  • Theca - interna, externa
  • Vascularisation of theca layer
  • Theca calls produce antigens - substrate for oestrogen synthesis (granulosa cells)

Tetiary (antral) follicle:

  • Granulosa secrete fluid
  • Antrum formed (fluid filled)
  • Theca internal cells become steroidogenic
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29
Q

Follicle maturation

A 
Antral follicles reposnd to FSH
Dominant follicle selected - Graafian follicle
- Dependent on LH
- Granulosa cells acquire LH receptors
- Ovulation caused by LH surge
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30
Q

Corpus luteum

A

After ovulation, follicle collapses and remaining granulosa and luteal cells form the corpus luteum
Numbers of CL - number of ovulations and release oocytes
Remains for duration of luteal phases, rapidly invaded by blood vessels
Synthesise progesterone to maintain pregnancy
Formation regulated by LH

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31
Q

Seasonal breeders

A

Sheep, goat, horse, deer
+/- cat
Wild pig
Hamster, rabbit

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32
Q

Non-seasonal breeders

A

Dog
Cow, pig
Guinea pig
Rodents

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33
Q

Physiological basis of seasonal breeding

Neuroendocrine pathway

A

Light -> pineal gland produces melatonin -> hypothalamus produces GnRH -> pituitary produces LH pulses -> oestrous cycle -> ovulation of oocytes

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34
Q

Sperm motility

A

Moving through uterine tract: uterine cilia, uterine contractions
Sperm tail: energy production, propulsive apparetus
Axenome: similar to flagella

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35
Q

Sperm structure

A

Tail:

  • Mitochondrial helix - energy
  • Axenome - 2 central microtubules surrounded by 9 microtubule doublets

Head: Apical ridge, acrosome, plasma membrane, equatorial segment, almost no cytoplasm

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36
Q

Sperm transport

A

Rapid transport phase:

  • Reaches oviducts within minutes
  • No time to mature, unable to fertilise

Sustained transport phase:

  • Capacitation and hyperactivation in female tract
  • Storage reservoirs - cervix and oviducts
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37
Q

Sperm storage

A

Extends window for fertilisation
Cervical storage: cervical crypts - blind ending tunnels get rid of bad swimming sperm, absence of progesterone - sperm released
Oviduct sperm storage: uncapacitated sperm bind to epithelial cells in the isthmus, at ovulation number of sperm in the oviduct increase

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38
Q

Fertilisation

A

Acrosomal enzyme -> small hole in zona pellucida (rapid process)
Sperm move into perivitelline space between zona pellucida and oocyte plasma membrane
Oocyte plasma membrane fuses with sperm equatorial segment - sperm engulfed
Cortical granules from oocyte move into perivitelline space to cause zona pellucida to block polyspermy

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39
Q

Pregnancy - progesterone

A

Corpus luteum:

  • Maintains progesterone production
  • 2 weeks in non fertile cycle (lysed by PGF2a)
  • Continues if pregnant (until placenta takes over- primates, horses)
  • Implanting foetus must signal its presence to prevent removal of progesterone
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40
Q

PMSG

Pregnant mare serum gonadotrophin

A

AKA equine chorionic gonadotrophin - luteotrophics
Secreted by trophoblasts cells on day 40-120
LH-like activity - promotes follicular growth, ovulation and production/maintenance of CL
Placenta takes over from CL around day 140

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41
Q

Maternal support of pregnancy

A

Adequate metabolism of O2, salts and organic pre-cursors
Conceptus induces formation of placenta
Development and hypertrophy of the uterine musculature
Development and maintenance of mammary glands
Take over motherā€™s metabolism with pregnancy hormones (progesterone, oestrogen, CG, placental lactogen, PL)

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42
Q

Labour - stage 1

A 
Regular uterine contractions
Cervical mucous plug
Cervical shortening and dilation occurs
Latent phase: cervix slowly dilates to 3cm
Active phase: rapid dilation of cervix
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43
Q

Labour - stage 2

A

Complete delivery of foetus

Rupture of membrane and abdominal contractions

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44
Q

Labour - stage 3

A

Delivery of placenta

dogs and cats: occurs with stage 2

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45
Q

Myometrial contractions

A

Co-ordinated uterine contraction requires the simultaneous activation of all smooth muscle cells in the uterus

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46
Q

Brachystasis

A

Contractions lead to retraction of the lower uterine segment and cervix upwards
Creates a birth canal
Myometrial cells undergo brachystasis - muscles contract and shorten but do not regain their original length at relaxation

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47
Q

Contraction hormones

A

Oxytocin: lowers the excitation threshold of muscle cells
Prostaglandins: stimulate liberation of Ca2+ from intracellular stores

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48
Q

Cervical softening

A 
High connective tissue content
Resist stretch, allowing distension of the body of the uterus whilst maintaining the cervix in a closed state
Softening - 2 changes:
- Reduction of collagen fibres
- Increase in proteoglycan matrix fibres

Regulated by prostglandins

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49
Q

White vaginal discharge

A

Vaginitis
Early metoestrous
Open pyometra
Cystitis

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50
Q

Red vaginal discharge

A 
Proestrous
Oestrous
Persistant ovarian follicle
Ovarian tumour (oestrogen secreting)
Vaginal trauma/FB
Cystitis
Urethral neoplasia
Coagulopathy
Placental separation
Subinvolution
Post partum
Vascular malformation
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51
Q

Vaginal discharge - other colours

A 
Clear: normal
Clear watery: amnotic/allontic fluid
Greeny/black: normal parturition/dystocia
Brown/red-black: metritis
Yellow: incontinence
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52
Q

Vaginitis

A

Usually purulent discharge in a bitch

Age at onset important to determine:

  • Juvenile: secondary to bacterial contamination and excess vaginal secretion, usually resolves spontaneously with 1st season, avoid Abs
  • Adult: less common, ID and treat specific causes, may respond to exogenous oestrogens
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53
Q

Pyometra

A

Uterus filled with pus - usually within 8 weeks of last oestrous

Open: mucopurulent vaginal discharge and mild-moderataly enlarged uterus
Closed: no discharge, grossly enlarged uterus, systemic illness

Depression, lethargy, mucopurulent discharge, pyrexia, PU/PD, V, collapse, shock, neutrophils with a left shift, possible azotaemia, acidosis, endotoxaemia, hypoglycaemia, anaemia, coagulation abnormalities

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54
Q

Vaginal/vestibulo neoplasia

A

Smooth muscle tumour of the vagina/vestibule - most common
Typically slow growing smooth muscle tumours
- Leiomyoma, leiomyosarcoma
- Usually elderly entire bitches
- May present with visible mass, bulging perineum or dysuria/dyschezia

Treat: surgical excision and spay, chemotherapy?

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55
Q

Vaginal hyperplasia and vaginal prolapse

A

Excessive response of vaginal mucosa to oestrogen during follicular phase of oestrous cycle - vaginal oedema/prolapse

Brachycephalic breeds are predisposed, may interefer with mating, exposed tissues may get traumatised

Treat: Conservative measures - moist, vulvar sutures, surgical excision, usually via episiotomy, spay/control oestrous

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56
Q

Ambiguous genitalia

A

Indication of presence of androgens and therefore testicular material +/- ovarian tissue

Investigate: evaluate pelvic anatomy, remove gonads + histopath, karotyping

Treat: remove gonads, possible partial penile amputation possible via an episiotomy

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57
Q

Recognise dystocia in the bitch (and queen)

A

Foetal fluid passed more than 2-3h but no birth
Vigorous, regular straining for 20-30min but no birth
Greenish/reddish brown vulval discharge apparent but no birth
>2-4h since last pup/kitten (def more coming)
Second stage of labour >12h
Sickness of dam

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58
Q

Maternal causes of dystocia

A 
Narrow birth canal
Disturbed labour: uterine inertia (most common), uterine spasm/tetany, inadequate abdominal forces
Uterine abnormalities
Prolonged pregnancy
Pyschogenic status
Extra uterine problems
Premature birth
Prolonged parturition
Idiopathic
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59
Q

Foetal causes of dystocia

A

Increased foetal size/litter size, gestational length, genetic/breed factors
Foetal malpresentation (most common)
Abnormal foetal development - hydrocephalus, other congenital abnormalities, foetal death

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60
Q

Uterine inertia

A

Primary: more common, uterus fails to response to foetal signs, complete or partial

Secondary: exhaustion of the myometrium, secondary to an obstruction

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61
Q

Medical management of dystocia

Dog/Cat

A

No evidence of obstruction
Exercise dam, feathering the roof of vaginal floor, treat hypocalcaemia/hypoglycaemia, tocospasmolytic drugs sometimes

Oxytocin:
Repeat small doses - 0.2-0.4 IU/kg every 30-40 min

Then consider caesarean

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62
Q

Vulval/vaginal abnormalities

A

Congenital: vulval stenosis, anovulvar cleft, rectovaginal fistula, vestibulovaginal stricture/band

Acquired: Vulval hypertrophy, recessed vulva, trauma, neoplasia

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63
Q

Ovarian neoplasia

A 
Relatively uncommon in cats/dogs
Granulosa cell tumour
Cystadenoma
Adenocarcinoma
Teratoma

Large mass +/- ascites
May be endocrinologicall active
Surgical excision

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64
Q

Hydrometria

A

Sterile accumulations of fluid within uterus
Large fluid filled viscous within abdomen
Rare, may be incidental

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65
Q

Cryptorchidism

A

Most common congenital defect in male dog (occasionally cat)
May be abdominal/inguinal/prescrotal
More common in pedigrees
More susceptible to torsion and neoplasia - castrate

Anorchism/monorchism very rare

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66
Q

Testicular neoplasia

A

2nd most common site in male dogs (rare in cats)
Three types of roughly equal incidence:
- Seminoma (may rarely be assocated with feminisation)
- Interstitial cell tumour aka Leydog tumours (functional - produce testosterone)
- Sertoli cell tumour (functioning produce oestrogen)

Usually benign if scrotal (not retained)
Can cause infertility

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67
Q

Orchitis/epidiymitis

A

Usually together
Signs: epididymal enlargement, testicular pain, tenesmus and scrotal oedema, may abscessate via scrotum, systemic illness

Chronic: small, firm testes with epididymal enlargement, adhesions between tunics and scrotum may reduce testicular motility

Infection may originate from urinary tract, via direct penetrations or via haematogenous spread

Castrate

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68
Q

Protruding penis

A

Social problem for owner, low grade irritation, pain, bleeding, trauma

Paraphimosis: Non-erect penis protrudes from prepuce and cannot be retracted or retained in its normal position - narrowed preputial orifice, penile enlargment

Priapism, trauma

Failure of penis to stay in prepuce:

  • Abnormally short prepuce
  • Weak preputal muscles
  • Wear retractor penis muscle
  • Contracture following wound

Treat: Symptomatic, surgical enlargement of preputial opening, phalloplexy, preputial lengthening/reconstructive procedures, partial penile amputation

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69
Q

Priapism

A

Persistent erection of >4h without sexual excitement
Uncommon in cats/dogs
- Trauma, perineal abscess, neuro disease
-Non ischaemic vs ischaemic (emergency!)

Treat:

  • Buster collar, analgesia, topical treatment
  • Therapeutic aspiration via surgical excisions and flushing of the corpus cavernosum +/- intra-cavernosal injection of phenylephrine
  • If all else fails: amputation with perineal urethrostomy (cat) or scrotal urethrostomy (dog)
70
Q

Penile tumours

A

Uncommon, dog>cat

Soft tissues: transmissable venereal tumour, squamous cell carcinoma, papilloma, lymphoma, adenocarcinoma, mast cell tumour

Os penis: osteosarcoma, ossifying fibroma, chondrosarcoma

71
Q

Hypospadias

A

Developmental abnormality of male external genitalia
Failure of fusion of the urogenital folds and incomplete formation of penile urethra
Can occur anywhere along ventral aspect of penis

72
Q

Persistent frenulum

A

Usually immature dogs
Penis and prepuce should be fully separated after puberty
Treatment: sectioning under short GA

73
Q

Phimosis

A

Inability to protrude the penis beyond preputial orifice
Congenital/acquired
Treat: surgical enlargement, underlying conditions

74
Q

Preputial discharge

A

Slight creamy discharge normal in mature dog

Severe/blood-tinged discharge should be investigated
Originating from external urethral orifice, from prepuce

Treat underlying cause

75
Q

Difficulty defecating/systemic illness

A

Dyschezia: usually indicates prostatic enlargement

May be in combo with other disorders e.g. perineal rupture

Causes: benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH), prostatic cysts, prostatitis/abscessation, neoplasia

76
Q

Benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH)

A

Entire male dogs
Normal aging change that may be associated with clinical disease
Testosterone dependent, results in uniform prostatic enlargement -> dychezia and sometimes dysuria
May be associated with haematuria/urethral bleeding

Surgical: castration - permanent involution 3-12w
Medical:
- Anti-androgen - oestrogen acetate - 7d PO repeat every 5m
- Synthetic progestagen - delmaldinee acetate - monthly injection
- GnRH - deslorelin implant, 6m, not licensed
- Oestrogens - may get squamous metaplasia
- Faecal softeners

77
Q

Prostatitis/prostatic abscessation

A

Common in dog, rare in cat
Usually from UTI (or haematogenous spread)
More likely in entire dogs
Maybe: Purulent urethral discharge, systemically ill, dysuric, painful, V/D, PU/PD
May present with collapse and septic shock

78
Q

Prostatic/paraprostatic cysts

A

Two types:

  • Prostatic/parenchymal cysts
  • Paraprostatic/periprostatic cysts

Can be secondary to possible squamous metaplasia, uterus masculinous remnant, neoplasia, resolved abscess

Treat: rarely medical, surgical (castration, omentalisation/other drainage procedure, biopsy cyst wall)

79
Q

Prostatic neoplasia

A

Rare but most common prostatic disease in castrated animals
Adenocarcinoma/transitional cell carcinoma
Tends to be locally invasive and metastasise

Signs: weight loss, pain, hL lameness, dychezia/dysuria, may get HL oedema, prostate not always enlarged may be irregular in contour and firm on palpation

Palliative treatment

80
Q

Castration

Opne vs closed

A

Open: Vaginal tunic out and not repaired
May reduce post-op swelling and reduce the risk of ligature slippage

Closed:
Vaginal tunic left intact
Reduced risk of intestinal herniation

81
Q

Varicose haemangioma

A

Dog and boar

Benign proliferation of blood vessels that may ulcerate or become traumatised

82
Q

Testicular atrophy/degeneration

A

Reduces in size after puberty
Causes: increased scrotal temp, decreased testicular blood supply, vit A or Zn deficiency, drug reactions, radiation damage, obstruction and hyperoestrogenism

Hypoplasia +/- fibrosis and granuloma formation

83
Q

Infectious epididymitis - ram

A

Haematogenous e.g. Brucella ovis - notifiable
Ascending e.g. Actinobacillus seminus, Histophilus somni, E.coli

Swelling and spermatic granuloma formation especially in tail of epididymus

84
Q

Funiculitis

A

Inflammation of the spermatic cord
After open castration, common in pigs, generally acute and necrotising

Horses: ā€˜Scirrhous cordā€™ after open castration, exuberant granulation tissue in the affected cord often with weeping fistulation to the exterior staph and strep

85
Q

Prostate metaplasia

A

Glandular epithelium -> squamous type dogs with Sertoli cell tumours and predisposes to infection
Cattle/sheep associated with oestrogenic implants and ingestion of phytoestrogens e.g. red clover

Squamous metaplasia also occurs in bulbourethral lands of wethers exposed to oestrogenic effects of high clover pastures

86
Q

Trichomonus foetus

A

Sheath washings

Infertility/early embryonic death/abortion and metritis/pyometra in female cow

87
Q

Campylobacter foetus spp. venerealis

A

Sheath washings and FAT/culture

Infertility/early embryonic death/abortion in female cow

88
Q

PIzzle rot

A

Sheep, ulcerative posthitis
Mainly castrated male sheep (wethers)
Caused by Corynebacterium renale

Predisposed by hypoplasia of the penis or prepuce, urinary soiling and high planes of nutrition
Yellowish discoloration (necrosis) and ulceration on the anterodorsal aspect of the prepuce

If severe, that portion of the prepuce may slough
Secondary infection is common

89
Q

Summer sores

A

Cutaneous habronemiasis in horses

Exuberant granulation following the deposition of larvae in this region

90
Q

Squamous cell carcinoma - horses

A

Geldings and stallions and occasionally other species

Novel papillomavirus, cauliflower-like of variable size and occurs principally on Glans penis

91
Q

Fibropapilloma of the penis

A

Bovine papillomavirus type 1
Occurs on the Glans penis of 1-2y bulls - regresses with age
Benign but may be large or multiple
Complications: secondary infections or penile obstruction

92
Q

Transmissable veneral tumour

A

Rare in UK
Caudal portion of penis principally
Also on the skin at site of wounds
Variable size, cauliflower like, prone to ulceration and secondary infection

93
Q

Relaxin

A

Elevated after LH surge
Undetectable in non-pregnant animals
Relaxin enzyme assay - pregnancy diagnosis

94
Q

Control of oestrous in the bitch

A

Spay
Synthetic progestagens:
- First generation progestagens potentially induce GH secretion leading to acromegly, DM, mammary tumours
- Proligestone (PRG) prevents oestrous in queen and bitches - strongly antigonadotrophic, weakly progestagenic, antioestrogenic

95
Q

Pseudopregnancy

A

Non-pregnant bitch showing signs (weight gain, mammary development, lactation) from 45 days after the end of oestrous

Treat:

  • Synthetic progestagens
  • Oestrogens and androgens in combo
  • Dopamine agonists (can induce vomiting)
96
Q

Control of oestrous in the queen

A

Spay

hCG: induce ovulation and delaying subsequent calling because queen goes through phase of false pregnancy

Androgens: used to postpone calling, oral doses - 30d before anticipated oestrous (induces masculinisation)

Progesterone:

  • Prevention - as soon as calling starts, suppress call and prevent conception
  • Temporary postponement - given during anoestrous
  • Permanent postponement - repeat doses given anoestrous
97
Q

Reinstating reproductive activity in normal healthy animals

A

Treatment of anovulatory anoestous/acyclicity in cows:

  • Correct underlying factors first
  • PRID OR CIDR first and 500 iu eCG on day of removal

Manipulate photoperiod/melatonin:
- 16h dark, 8h light, regulin implants

Ram/boar effect:

  • Isolate: sight, sounds and smell
  • Perception of male by females: visual or physical contact or pheremones
98
Q

Induction of puberty in gilts

A

Prepubertal gilts:

  • Induction of puberty/prevention of delayed puberty
  • At 6-7 m of age/100kg bw/>8m of age

1st litter sows:

  • Pevention of anoestrous
  • Day of weaning

Multiparous and 1st litter sows:

  • Treatment of anoestrous
  • 8-10d after weaning

Multiparous and 1st litter sows (seasonal anoestrous):

  • Prevention of anoestrous due to seasonal influence
  • On day of weaning
99
Q

Increasing the number of gametes

A

Increase in follicular recruitment or decrease in atresia - FSH, LH and P4 profiles during follicles waves

Super-ovulation of donor - recombinant FSH, pFSH, oFSH, eCG (PMSG), porcine pituitary extract (purified)

Manipulation of nutrition:

  • Increase in follicular recruitment
  • Flushing: rising plane of nutrition before mating
  • Mechanism: higher energy intake lower estradiol concentrations and promotes FSH release
100
Q

Synchronisation of oestrous/ovulation

A

Controlled breeding without oestrous detection:

  • Fixed time AI
  • High pregnancy rates
  • Control of luteal phase and/or follicular growth

Luteolysis in the cow:

  • PGF2a produced after day 15 in cow - causes CL lysis
  • Ovsynch: follicular wave synchrony and prostaglandin; follicular wave synchrony wit GnRH and control (shortening of luteal phase
  • Exogenous progesterone (PRID/CIDR) with PGF2a
101
Q

Enhancement of embryo survival

A

Establishment of pregnancy - maternal recognition: compromised by insufficient rise in post-ovulatory progesterone - defective CL?

Luteal deficiency/poor maternal recognition of pregnancy:

  • Progesterone supplementation of GnRH day 11 (cows)/9 (ewes)
  • Works bets in herd with low conception rates
102
Q

Control of parturition

A

Synchonize calving with seasonal grazing

Foetus initiates paturition - stops progesterone production by CL or placenta

103
Q

Immunological control of reproduction

A

Immunisation against androstenedione:

  • Single injection in ewe (Fecundin)
  • Androvax, Ovastim

Immunisation against GnRH:

  • Inhibits production of gonadotrophins and gonadal steroids
  • Reduces testicular size and function
  • Control aggression and reduce male-associated odours
  • Vaxstrate (cattle), Equity (horses), Gonacon (White tailed deer), Improvac (improve boar taint)
104
Q

Treatment of reproductive diseases

A

Cystic ovarian disease:

  • Defect in the ovulatory mechanism due to failure of the pre-ovulatory LH surge
  • Contributory factors: stress, lower oestradiol concentrations, lower hypothalamic sensitivity to oestradiol, uterine infection, negative energy balance

Luteal cysts: prostaglandins, in heat after 3/4d

Follicular cysts: no manual rupture, GnRH or hCG

Pyometra, pseudopregnancy (goats)

105
Q

Oestrous detectiong aids

A 
Pedometers
Beacon
Estroheat
Tail paint
Closed circuit TV

Ostreous synchronisation + single/double fixed AI?
Natural service?
Ovsynch

106
Q

Embryopathic organisms (cows)

A 
Campylobacter foetus
Tritrichomonas foetus
Chlamydophila psittaci
Mycoplasma, ureoplasma, acholeplasma
BVDV
Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR)
Bluetongue virus
107
Q

Endometritis (cows)

Frequent causes

A 
Trueperella (Arcanobacterium)
Progenes
Prevetella sp.
E. coli
Fusobacterium necrophorum
Fusobacterium nucleatum

Treat:
CL present - PGF2a
No CL - metricure

108
Q

Abortion and still birth (cows)

Infectious causes

A 
Brucella abortis: 6-9m
Leptospira spp: 6-9m
Listeria monocytogenes: 6-9m
Campylobacter foetus: 5-7m
Tritrichomenas foetus: 5m
Salmonella spp: variable, 7m
Trueperella (Arcanobacter) progenes: sporadic and variable
Mycobacterium tuberculosis: anytime 
Fungi: Aspergillus, Absidia, Mortiella spp., Mucoralis group - 4m to term
Bacillus licheniformis: sporadic late abortion
Neospora caninum: late abortions
IBR - IPV virus: 4-7m
BVDV: any stage
109
Q

Poor conception rate in sheep (sheep)

A 
Season: late/early in breeding season
Reproductive tract abnormalities: relatively uncommon, freemartinism, hyperplastic ovaries, cysts
Fertilisation failure
Phytooestrogens - red clover
Stress
Male infertility
110
Q

Early embryonic death (sheep)

A

Asynchronicity between embryonic development and timing of P4 rise
Dietary intake
Age
Mineral deficiencies: Se, I
Infectious: toxoplasma, border disease virus

Late foetal death:

  • Overfeeding in early pregnancy
  • Underfeeding in late pregnancy
  • Ovine/caprine abortion: Chlamydophila abortus, Toxoplasmosis, Campylobacter (Q-fever, Brucellosis, Leptospirosis, Salmonellosis, Listeriosis, Border disease)
111
Q

Perinatal mortality (sheep)

A

Still birth, trauma, mineral deficiency
Disease: e.g. watery mouth, viral diarrhoea etc.
- Toxoplasma, Chlamydophila may result in the birth of weak lambs
Starvation/exposure

112
Q

Equine reproductive infections

A 
Taylorella equigenitalis (CEMO)
Klebsiella pneumoniae (capsule 1, 2 and 3)
Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Equine viral arteritis (EVA) - pink eye
Equine herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) - abortion
Equine infectious anaemia (EIA) (not in UK)
Equine coital exanthema (EHV-3) pox like

Trypanos equiperdem - Dourine - not in UK, but in Italy
Strangles: Streptococcus equi equi - screen for carriers

113
Q

Pre-season screening

Stallions and teasers

A

01/01 - 15/02

Bacterial swab: 2 sets - urethral, urethral fossa, prepucial smegma and pre-ejaculatory fluid swabs, 7 days apart

Viral swab: 1 serum sample for EVA titre, vaccinated stallion will be positive; 1 serum sample for EIA

114
Q

Pre-season screening

Mares

A

01/01 - 15/02

Swab late foaling mares, 1m before due date
Additional clitoral swab for dystocia/treated mares - Klebsiella and Pseudomonas

Bacterial infections: 1 set clitorial sinus and fossa swabs
Viral infections: 1 serum sample for EVA titre; 1 serum sample EIA

115
Q

Equine viral arteritis

A

Brick red conjunctivitis, fever, depression, filled legs, head, skin rash, abortion, early pregnancy failure

Blood sample for Abs, nasopharyngeal swabs and tissues for PCR and culture, stop mating/AI

Trace and notify, follow up blood sample (1m)
Stallions become permanent shedders - castrate/euthanase

116
Q

Equine herpesvirus

A

EHV3: genital pustules but not abortion
EHV4: Resp disease, very rare, isolated abortions
EHV1: abortions, resp disease, paralysis, mutlifocal necrosis in liver, lungs and spleen

Weanlings, yearlings, horses out of training

Abortion: isolate (other pregnant mares), PM

Ataxia:

  • Blood sample, nasopharyngeal swab
  • Intensive care, movement restrictions (euthanasia)

Vaccinate:
- EHV-1,4 - against abortion

117
Q

Equine coital exanthema

A

Pox like lesions -penile, preputial, vulval skin 5-9d after infection
10-14d recovery - cease mating
Symptomatic treatment, occasional systemic signs

118
Q

Equine Infectious anaemia

A

Fever, anaemia, oedema, weight loss, death

Lentivirus spread by infected horseflies and stable flies

119
Q

Strangles

A

Discharge, nasopharyngeal swabs, isolates

Respiratory infection: nasal discharge, submandibular abscess
Internal abscesses: pneumonia, colic, diarrhoea, weight loss

Carriers: Guttural pouch washes

120
Q

1st stage labour (1-4h)

Horses

A

Variable duration
Usually late evening/night
Mare become restless and starts ā€˜nest-makingā€™, digging, re-arranging bedding
Abdominal pain, passing small quantities of urine and small droppings

121
Q

2nd stage of labour (0.1-0.5h)

Horses

A

Breaking water, point of no return

Violent abdominal straining, unbroken, smooth, pale-coloured, amnion starts to protrude, allantoic fluid is expelled
Muzzle and front feet starts to emerge, amnion is still intact

122
Q

Delivery

Horses

A

Abdomen and hind legs expelled
Mare rests
Placental blood flows through the unbroken umbilical cord into the foal
When cord breaks, should be dressed with antiseptic

Avoid foaling standing up but if it happens - support the foal during delivery

123
Q

3rd stage labour (1-2h)

Horses

A

Tie amnion into a ball so it is not damaged if the mare stand up sudden
Placenta should be expelled within 1h - both horns intact

124
Q

Red bag delivery

Horses

A

Waters do not break, placenta can be seen - thick, red and unbroken at vulval lips
If allowed to continue, placenta will be expelled - foal will asphyxiate - open manually

125
Q

Epidural

Horses

A

Eases manipulation, prevents impaction
Copious lubrication, repel and reposition
6 inch spinal needle, 1st intercoccygeal space
- 7-10ml 2% lidocaine
- 7.5ml 1% xylazine

126
Q

Pain after foaling

A

Immediately after: normal uterine cramps - usually resolve quickly

Soon after: uterine artery haemorrhage, uterine rupture, colonic/caecal rupture

24-48h/weeks/months: colon torsion

127
Q

Retained placenta

Horses

A

Tie amnion up, gently pull

Oxytocin: 0.5 iu in 500 ml saline over 2h

Abs, analgesia - anti-endotoxic doses of flunixin
Pump in weak (

128
Q

Obturator paralysis

Horses

A

ā€˜Doing the splitsā€™ during foaling
Hind limb hobbles for merginal cases
Slings for those who cannot stand

129
Q

Perineal lacerations

Horses

A

Minor: vulval splits, Cowslick tears, vaginal tears

1st degree: small tears of the mm of the vulva and vestibule

2nd degree: Involved deeper structures - perineal body, constrictor vulvae muscle, immediate surgical correction

3rd degree: tearing of the vestibulo and vaginal walls, perineal body, anal sphincter, rectal wall, immediate surgery

130
Q

Ovarian neoplasms

Horses

A

Germ cell neoplasms - rare:

  • Dysgerminoma: from primitive germ cells - smooth surface and commonly area of haemorrhage/necrosis
  • Teratoma: from totipotent germ cells, mostly well-differentiated and benign

Gonadal stromal neoplasm/sex cord stromal tumours:

  • Granulosa-theca cell tumour
  • Thecoma, luteoma

Epithelial neoplasm:
- (Cyst)adenoma and (cyst)adenocarcinoma

Secondary tumours: lymphoma, mammary carcinomas (bitch), intestinal carcinomas (cow)

131
Q

Endometritis

Pathology

A 
Limited to uterine mucosa
Inflammatory inflitrate (lymphocytes, plasma cells) into mucosa
Severe cases can become chronic and fibrous
Persistent CL in mare and cow in chronic endometritis

Common pathogens (Cows): Herpesvirus, Tritrichomonas foetus, Campylobacter foetus spp venerealis, others include pyogenic cocci and coliformes. T. pyogenes

Common pathogens (Mares): Alpha-haemolytic streptococci, Klebsiella pneumonia, E. coli. Taylorella equigenitalis (CEM), Pseudomonas aeruginosa

132
Q

Pyometra (cow)

A

Endometritis/metritis predisposes
Early post-partum or at various times after breeding - venereal disease
Peristing CL and high progesterone levels
A few ml - several litres of thick, mucinous, cream/grey coloured pus
Rarely systemic

Common pathogens: Haemolytic streptococci, Staphyococcus, coliforms, Trueperella pyogenes, Pseudomonas sp, Tritrichomonas foetus

Sow: Trueperella pyogenes
Mare: Streptococcus zooepidemicusm, E. coli, Actinomyces spp., Pasteurella spp., Pseudomonas

133
Q

Equine arteritis virus

A

Arterivirus
Notifiable
Enters via respiratory tract or semen
Infects macrophages and endothelial cells -> arteritis

Fever, depression, pink eye, abortion

Stallions become shedders

134
Q

Bovine viral diarrhoea virus

A

Pestivirus
Shed in respiratory secretions and faeces
Haematogenous spread to foetus via placenta

1st trimester (0-110) prior to immuno competence:
- Embyonic/foetal death - resorption/abartion/mummification
- Persistent infection
2nd trimester (111-190):
- Abortions/mummifications, PIs (only until 140), congenital deformities (125-175)
3rd trimester:
- Occasional abortions/still births/weak calves but usually ā€˜normalā€™ calf

Vaccinate dam, ID and isolate PIs

135
Q

Bovine herpesvirus-1

A

Venereal, contact, aerosol
IBR, IPV (infectious pustular vulvovaginitis), IBP (infectious balanoposthitis)

Abortions:

  • Following respiratory infections
  • May occur weeks after infection of dam
  • 4-8m gestation, necrosis in foetal liver and lung
136
Q

Schmallenberg virus

A

Orthobunyavirus, Arbovirus
Infection of dam during early pregnancy
Virus has neurotropism

Common findings in affected foetus/neonates: arthrogryposis, hydranencephaly, cerebellar/cerebral hypoplasia

137
Q

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS)

A

Arteriviridae
Infection of respiratory tract via aerosol or genital tract via virus infection semen
Respiratory disease or oedema or subclinical
Immunosuppression
Abortions/mummification/premature piglets

138
Q

Porcine parvovirus

A

Early embryonic death ( resorption (infertility)
Infection at later stages causes death of foetus with mummification
Death at late stages -> still births
If infected >70d, foetal death less frequent - immune response

139
Q

Swine influenza

A

Type A influenza virus
Resp signs, pyrexia >41, abortions
Transplacental infection considered rare

140
Q

Porcine circovirus 2

A

Abortions, mummification, still births, weak piglets, congenital tremor

Post-weaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PWMS)
Porcine dermatitis and nephropathy syndrome (PDNS)

141
Q

Aujeszkyā€™s disease

A

Herpesvirus
Notifiable
Entry via respiratory tract
CNS signs and high mortality in piglets

In pregnant sows: haematogenous spread to foetus - abortions/still births

142
Q

Classical swine fever

A 
Pestivirus
Notifiable 
High mortality
Diarrhoea
Haemorrahages in skin and other organs such as kidneys
Abortions, mummifications, still birth
143
Q

Canine herpesvirus

A

INfection of pups during or just after birth leading to systemic herpesvirus infection
Immature immune systems and poor regulation of body temp allows infection to establish
Organ necrosis and death

Vaccine available for pregnant bitch

144
Q

Ewe gestation period

A

144d (20 weeks)

145
Q

Pregnancy toxaemia/twin lamb disease

A

Negative energy balance in ewe
Recumbent, neuro signs, twins/triplets

Stress: cold weather, wet weather, moving, transport, change of feed, delay in feeding

IV glucose, oral propylene glycol, oral electrolyte carb source - liquid lactate

Less common in cows

146
Q

Fat cow syndrome

Fatty liver

A

Fat mobilisation due to hormonal influences (last two weeks of pregnancy and early lactation)

Fatty liver: immunosuppression, endometritis, ketosis, retained foetal membranes, infertility, mastitis

Can be life threatening - recumbent, inappetent

147
Q

Foetal stress - initiate parturition

A 
Foetal stress
Foetal glucocorticoid
Placental oestrogen increase
Myometrial oxytocin receptors increase and endometrial PGF2a 
Myometrial contraction, luteolysis, decreased progesterone
Relaxin secretion
Placental separation from endometrium
Fresh non-autolysed foetus

Rapid foetal death -> loss of pregnancy by other mechanisms -> autolysed foetus

148
Q

Embryonic death

A

15-30% considered normal
Expulsion/repulsion
Can return to oestrous at normal interval or delayed return to service

Infections rarer: Ureaplasma spp., Tritrichomonus foetus, Campylobacter spp.

149
Q

Mummification

A

Usually multiparous animals
Foetal skin is well-developed enough to withstand autolysis
Absorption of placental and foetal fluids
No odour, closed cervix, time point of expulsion varied

Genetic, viral, protozoan infections. placental insufficiencies, no putrefying bacteria

150
Q

Maceration

A

Foetus becomes liquified - bacterial uterine infection required
Reabsorption (early cases) or expulsion with purulent exudate
Only incomplete if foetal bones are developed
Foetid odour

Common with venereal infections by Campylobacter foetus venerealis and Tritrichomonas foetus or non-specific endometrial infections

Often leads to pyometra or endometritis
Perforation of uterine wall by foetal bones possible

151
Q

Emphysema

A

Putrefactive organisms ascending from the vagina
Patent cervix
Dystocia at or near tern and complete abortion
Putrefaction of foetus which distends with foul gas and crepitates
Advance uterine lesions often fatal to dam - toxaemia

152
Q

Leptospira hardjo

A

Spirochaete
Major cause of bovine abortion, infertility and milk loss
Zoonotic

Reservoir: cattle and sheep co-grazing, water, introduced new animals/shared bull

153
Q

Bacillus licheniformis

A

Oppurtunistic pathogen
Spore-forming, aerobic, Gram positive rod
Sporadic abortion from the environment

154
Q

Chlamydophila abortus

A

Enzootic abortion, obligate intracellular pathogens, persistent infection, late pregnancy abortion in ewes
Subsequent fertility not affected

155
Q

Uterine prolapse

A 
Immediately postpartum
Hypocalcaemia
Emergency!
Support when cow is standing
Remove foetal membranes
Epidural block
156
Q

The puerperium

A

Period after parturition when repr tract returns to its non-pregnant state so pregnancy can re-occur

157
Q

Involution

A

Greatest decrease in uterine size occurs in first few days

Completed after 26-50d

158
Q

Regeneration of the endometrium

A

Uterine caruncles undergo degenerative changes probably due to vasoconstriction and ischaemia - necrosis and sloughing
Necrotic material, blood and foetal fluids constitutes the pp lochial discharge

159
Q

Resumption of ovarian cyclical activity

A

7-10d pp, increase in plasma FSH concentrations associated with 1st pp follicular wave
Ovulation will only occur if the follicle produces enough oestradiol to stimulate adequate LH adequate secretion

160
Q

Puerperal metritis

A

Systemic illness
Purulent fetid fluid in uterine lumen - distended fluid filled atonic uterus
Elevated rectal temperature 40-41
Dullness, depression, milk drop, inappetence, few day pp
Sore, swollen and inflamed vagina and vulva
Systemic toxaemia, pyaemia

161
Q

Anaesthesia for C-section in cow

A

0.8-1ml IV Xylazone to sedate (if necessary)

Epidural if straining
Local block: line, inverted ā€˜Lā€™
Paravertebral: T12, L1, L2, L3

162
Q

Primary uterine inertia

Pigs

A

Early cessation of farrowing or failure to start farrowing
No straining
Causal factors: lack of uterine contractility/tone

163
Q

Secondary uterine inertia

Pigs

A

2nd stage labour
Sow is staining but no effect - may have become exhausted
Oxytocin 2-5iu given IM at 30min intervals

164
Q

Downer sow

A

Failure to rise in the periperturient period

Causes: lactation osteoporosis - fracture of pelvis/femur, muscle weakness, apophysiolysis, rupture of lesser trochanter

Support, cull if fractured, improve surfacing

165
Q

Lactation problems

Pigs

A

Non-functioning teats
Agalactia: failure to let down milk, inject oxytocin (10iu)
Hot painful immature glands with normal milk
Ergot poisoning: poor mammary development and no response to oxytocin
Water deprivation

166
Q

Coliform mastitis

Pigs

A

Anorexia, pyrexia, loss of milk production

Causal agents: Pseudomonas, Enterobacter, Circobacter and Morganella. Most commonly E.coli, Klebsiella, environment pathogens

167
Q

Pyogenic mastitis

Pigs

A

Generally well
Usually single gland affected - hard and pendulous
End of lactation/soon after weaning

Staph, strep (also Actinomyces)

168
Q

Urinary tract disease
Pyelonephritis/cystitis
Pigs

A

Sudden death, 3 weeks post mating, mid-pregnancy, post-partum
Haematuria, pyrexia, bloody vulval discharge, inappetence
Fibrin, pus and blood while urinating
Depression, death

169
Q

Congenital abnormalities

Piglets

A

Splayleg: muscle weakness problem in adductor muscles in heavy, male piglets

Atresia ani: may be able to cut through layer of skin if bulge present - form an anus, Euthanasia

Epitheliogenesis imperfecta: may die or recover, differentiate from other wounds, may be inherited - new boar

170
Q

Mammary tumour types

A

Benign: adenoma, mesenchymal tumour, mixed tumour

Malignant: Carcinoma (solid, tubular, papillary, inflammatory), sarcoma, carcinoma

Veterinary Medicine (15 decks)

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