Research Methods (YR12+13)

Question 1

define primary data

Answer 1

• primary data = data collected first hand from sociologists for their own use

Question 2

define secondary data

Answer 2

• secondary data = data collected by other sociologists, Gov departments or official bodies (e.g. charities) or individuals

Question 3

give examples of primary data

Answer 3

• interviews, questionaries, experiments

Question 4

give examples of secondary data

Answer 4

• official statistics (crime rates, league tables), documents (newspapers, diaries)

Question 5

outline the advantages + disadvantages of primary data

Answer 5

• A: more accurate/ specific to the topic being studied. more trustworthy
• D: time consuming, expensive, cant be compared over time

Question 6

outline the advantages + disadvantages of secondary data

Answer 6

• A: cheaper, quicker
• D: less accurate/ specific to topic being studied

Question 7

define + give examples of quantitative data

Answer 7

• quantitative data = data in the form of numbers
• e.g. percentages, statistics

Question 8

define + give examples of qualitative data

Answer 8

• qualitative data = data in the form of everything other than numbers
• e.g. interviews, documents, pictures

Question 9

what are the advantages + disadvantages of quantitative data

Answer 9

• A: can spot trends and compare data throughout time
• D: doesn’t provide thorough insight into peoples views

Question 10

what are positivists 5 main viewpoints

Answer 10

1) society can be measured objectively
2) prefer quantitative data + methods
3) society/ institutions exerts influence over its members + shapes their behaviour (structural ideology)
4) P seek cause and effect
5) P prefer questionnaires, structured interviews, experiments, and official stats as they produce reliable and representative data

Question 11

what are interpretivists 5 main viewpoints

Answer 11

1) society cannot be measured objectively
2) prefer qualitative data + methods
3) individuals construct their own reality (social action)
4) I seek to gain a subjective understanding of individuals meanings
5) I prefer participant observation, unstructured interviews + personal documents as they produce valid data

Question 12

what are the advantages + disadvantages of qualitative data

Answer 12

• A: provides rich insight into peoples feelings + views
• D: hard to compare and analysis can be time consuming

Question 13

define triangulation

Answer 13

• triangulation = the combined use of diffferent types of methods (e.g. both quant. and qual. methods) to counteract the limitations of each method

Question 14

outline Validity

Answer 14

Validity
- how close the results are to the truth

Question 15

what 3 factors should be taken into consideration when researching teachers

Answer 15

• power relationships; teachers have more power; may be translated on researchers. they should pose as TAs or supplies to equalise the power imbalance
• teachers are over worked; may be less cooperative
• teachers are used to being scrutinised (e.g. OFSTED)/ HAWTHORNE EFFECT (people behave differently when they know they’re being watched); may not give valid answers if it reflects badly on school

Question 16

what 3 factors should be taken into consideration when researching schools

Answer 16

• is a formal organisation and has a formal hierarchy; headteachers may disapprove of possible interruptions, or in same sex skls, an opposite gendered researcher may cause implications
• headteachers hold the power; they are the gatekeepers who have the power to refuse researcher’s access to their school
• legal framework creates certain requirements; there is a strict legal duty of care that schools have for their pupils

Question 17

what does PERVRT stand for

Answer 17

Practical
Ethical
Reliable
Valid
Representative
Theoretical perspective

Question 18

outline Practical - MEAT

Answer 18

Practical
- the MEAT (Money, Effort, Access, Time) of a method that could affect the research

Question 19

outline Ethical

Answer 19

Ethical - Cerys Is Very Crazy
- Confidentiality; identity of Ps kept private
- Informed consent; Participants made aware of all elements. can back out of/ refuse to take part in research
- Vulnerable groups; special care for vulnerable groups (children, disability, mental health)
- Covert research; hiding the researchers identity and topic of research can cause ethical problems

Question 20

outline Theoretical perspectives

Answer 20

Theoretical perspectives
- Interpretivists + Positivists perspectives

Question 21

outline Reliable

Answer 21

Reliable
- can it be replicated to get the same results
- Positivists care about this

Question 22

outline Representativeness

Answer 22

Representativeness
- can the data be generalised to a wider population
- Positivists care about this

Question 23

what 3 factors should be taken into consideration when researching in classrooms

Answer 23

• controlled social setting; highly controlled environment - behaviour observed may not be accurate
• may disguise real thoughts; teachers + pupils are used to disguising true feelings; may conceal true feelings from researcher
• peer pressure as influence; young people are more sensitive to peer pressure - reduces validity

Question 24

what 3 factors should be taken into consideration when researching young pupils

Answer 24

• power and status; they have less power, may not feel comfortable
• ability; comprehension skills + vocab are developing - researchers have to take more care when forming Qs (OPERATIONALISING)
• vulnerability; are more vulnerable to physical + psychological harm

Question 25

outline the 4 steps of the research process

Answer 25

1) deciding on hypothesis/ aim; a statement outlining what you intend to study -e.g. ‘does class affect achievement’
2) operationalise concepts; turning sociological concepts into measurable data - e.g. to find someone’s social class ‘what is your job?’
3) pilot study; a small scale trial run done to find any flaws to save money + time for the real study
4) choose your sampling frame (e.g. electoral roll) and technique to find a sample

Question 26

what 3 factors should be taken into consideration when researching parents

Answer 26

• interactions; parents raise their kids individually + differently - not all kids react the same way
• are mostly outside of school and so harder to research; parents play a vital role in child’s education but most of their interactions happen at home which is closed off to research
• some may be more/ less willing to participate than others; class, gender, ethnicity play in apart in how willing they are- e.g. M/C parents more likely than W/C parents - creates unrepresentative data

Question 27

outline simple random sampling + its As and Ds

Answer 27

• every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected; e.g. pulling names out of a hat
• A: practical, easy
• D: might not be representative

Question 28

outline systematic random sampling + its As and Ds

Answer 28

• systematically selecting people from the sampling frame by choosing every 5th or 15th person, for example
• A: replicable
• D: may be unrepresentative

Question 29

outline stratified random sampling + its As and Ds

Answer 29

• selecting members in proportion to what % of the population they make up. e.g. 2.5% of Brits are of Indian origin, so 2.5% of the sample will be of Indian origin
• A: representative - it reflects society accurately
• D: is time consuming

Question 30

outline volunteer sampling + its As and Ds

Answer 30

• made up of individuals who have decided to be involved in a study; e.g. through a newspaper advert
• A: practical
• D: not representative

Question 31

outline snowball sampling + its As and Ds

Answer 31

• finding participants based on contacts. participants find other participants through word of mouth
• A: practical; easy
• D: not representative

Question 32

outline quota sampling + its As and Ds

Answer 32

• separating a sample into catergories (e.g. male and female) and then looking for specific qualities of that sample (a quota) (e.g. 100 males, 100 females)
• A: representative
• D: lacks practicality

Question 33

outline opportunity sampling + its As and Ds

Answer 33

• selecting those who are easiest to access at the time; e.g. interviewing people on the street
• A: practical; quick, cheap, easy
• D: may not be representative of population

Question 34

outline laboratory experiments

Answer 34

• experiments in a controlled, artificial environment that use scientific methods to test a hypothesis
• can control the variables
• there is an experimental (exposed to independent variable) + a control group (not exposed to indep. variable)
• can discover cause + effect and patterns

Question 35

outline field experiments

Answer 35

• takes place in the subjects natural surroundings
• those involved arent aware that they are involved inn an experiment - eliminates Hawthorne effect
• the researcher isolates / manipulates one/ more variables of the situation

Question 36

outline the comparative method

Answer 36

• the comparative method is carried out only in the mind of the sociologist - e.g. Durkheim’s study of suicide
• its a ‘thought experiment’
• it re-analyses secondary data and discovers cause + effect relationships
• the researcher identifies 2 groups that are alike apart from the variable being studied. then compare the 2 groups to see if the variable has any effect
• this method avoids artificiality, can study past events, avoids deceit
• BUT, it gives researcher less control, unreliable

Question 37

outline lab experiments in terms of PERVRT

Answer 37

• P: lacks, is more difficult to conduct, costly, time consuming
• E: lacks, lacks informed consent, deception - e.g. Milgram, Zimbardo
• R: has, standardised procedure + detached researcher, controllable variables, produces quant data, a detached + objective method
• V: lacks, Pos; is a controlled environment - isnt the real world, Hawthorne effect, lacks internal validity (findings arent true for Ps due to artificial environment)
• R: lacks, smaller sample size, lacks external validity (aren’t generalisable to wider pop)
• T: Pos favour it due to reliable nature, Int dont due to lab experiments search for causes - Ints disagree w/ cause and effect

Question 38

outline field experiments in terms of PERVRT

Answer 38

• P: lacks, gatekeepers can prevent access to an environment (e.g. school). can be time consuming
• E: lacks, potential for harm, lack of informed consent, e.g. Jacobsen + Rosenthal
• R: lacks, procedures may differ in different settings and so cant control all variables
• V: has, is a less artificial setting. people are unaware of them being studied - lack of Hawthorne Effect
• R: lacks, hard to obtain a perfectly representative sample
• T: favoured by Int, not by Pos

Question 39

outline questionnaires

Answer 39

• close ended: Ps choose from a limited range of possible answers selected in advance
• open ended: Ps are free to answer however they wish without pre selected answers by the researcher

Question 40

outline questionnaires in terms of PERVR

Answer 40

• P: has, easy, cheap + quick to send off, accessible to all, data is easily quantifiable to identify trends, no need to train interviewers, BUT; low response rate on postal, are inflexible, Q are snapshots (fails to capture changes in attitudes)
• E: has, you can choose to not answer the questionnaire
• R: has, easy to repeat due to standardised nature (Qs are a standardised measuring instrument), easily comparable
• V: lacks, close-ended Qs with pre set answers restrict the interviewee’s responses. pre set answers may not reflect the respondent’s view - doesn’t give true picture. ‘right-answerism’
• R: lacks, certain people are more likely to respond - e.g. unemployed, BUT; large scale, Qs more likely to use R sampling methods

Question 41

outline questionnaires in terms of Theoretical perspectives

Answer 41

Positivists:
- like: Questionnaires produce representative findings that are generalisable + reliable + objective + tests hypothesis + scientific/ objective
Interpretivists:
- dislike: Qs are invalid due to objectivity of researchers/ detached nature which disallows valid data + fails to provide a true picture
- lying/ forgetting from respondents skews validity

Question 42

outline positivists hypothesis testing with questionaires

Answer 42

• Ps seek to discover cause + effect
• Questionnaires allow Ps to identify c+e and test hypothesis
• for Ps to test hypothesis, they must identify a link between the 2 variables
• Qs establish correlations from which Ps can construct a hypothesis

Question 43

define standardised measuring stick

Answer 43

• standardised measuring stick = refers to a research method (e.g. questionnaires) that can be used by any researcher - allowing research to be easily replicated + checked by another
• also means that any differences in answers is due to the real differences of respondents - not the researcher

Question 44

outline interviews

Answer 44

• structured: every interview is conducted in the same standardised procedure - same questions, order, one of voice.
• unstructured: like a guided conversation, interviewer is free to vary the qs, wording, order etc.
• group: usually unstructured, includes focus groups
• semi-structured: same set of questions, but the interviewer can probe for more info + additional qs

Question 45

outline unstructured interviews in terms of PERVR

Answer 45

• P: lacks, time-consuming, must thoroughly train interviewers (costly), unable to quantify data easily
• E: has, is good for researching sensitive issues as researchers can build a rapport + a relationship. e.g. Dobash and Dobash
• R: lacks, due to natural flow of conversation - its not replicable and wont give you the same results
• V: has, no set Qs and so interviewee can speak at length about topic, gives rich qual. data, informality allows a rapport (trusting relationship), allows sensitive topics to be discussed
• R: lacks, there are fewer interviews due to lengthy nature of them and so a less generalisable sample

Question 46

outline unstructured interviews in terms of Theoretical perspectives

Answer 46

Interpretivists:
- like: rich, authentic qualitative data - understanding comes through involvement
- grounded theory: we build up + modify our hypothesis throughout the research, based on facts we learn - for this, UI are best
- open-ended Qs allow for in-depth/ unrestricted answers/ the true meaning
Positivists:
- dislike: UIs lack objectivity + reliability due to lack of standardised measuring instrument
- answers cant be easily quantified + categorised and so cant correlate variables, test hypothesis, or establish cause + effect links
- unrepresentative data due to small sample size + subjective

Question 47

outline the 3 values of feminist approaches to research

Answer 47

• value committed: takes the w’s side + aims to voice their experiences + to free them from patriarchal oppression
• involvement: researchers should be involved rather than detached from the research
• equality + collaboration: there should be this between the researcher + subject, rather than being hierarchal

Question 48

outline structured interviews in terms of PERVR

Answer 48

• P: has, is quick, cheap to conduct, can cover large numbers of people, data is easily quantifiable, suitable for hypothesis testing, small cost for training interviewers, high response rate
• E: may lack if researching vulnerable groups, e.g. children, pressure to answer sensitive Qs, anonymous
• R: has, pre set Qs allow procedure to be repeated with similar results, easily comparable
• V: lacks, close-ended / pre set Qs create limited choice for answers - leads to invalid data
• R: has, quick nature of interviews allows for a large number of people to be studied

Question 49

outline structured interviews in terms of Theoretical perspectives (+ Feminists)

Answer 49

Positivists:
- like; SI are representative (large numbers can be surveyed, high response rate), reliable (easy to replicate), objective, can test hypothesis (can est correlations)
Interpretivists:
- dislike; provides a false picture; invalid due to close ended Qs, people can lie/ exaggerate
Feminists:
- dislike: relationship between the researcher + researched reflects the exploitative nature of patriarchal society
- strict division of labour (researcher as active role, interviewees as passive role)

Question 50

outline observations

Answer 50

• non-participant observation = the researcher observes the group without taking part
• participant observation = the researcher takes part in the group whilst observing
• structured non-participant observation = uses a structured observational schedule (pre-determined list of behaviours the interviewer is interested in). each time a behaviour is observed, it’s noted - produces quant data
• overt observation = researcher’s role + purpose is known to those being studied
• covert observation = researchers role + purpose is unknown, they pose as a genuine member of the group

Question 51

outline ‘getting into’ observation groups

Answer 51

• making initial contact with a group will depend on personal factors such as having the right connections - may be gatekeepers to access - e.g. headteachers
• the researcher will have to win the group’s trust to overcome their suspicions - their age, race, gender etc may be an obstacle if it differs from group
• once entered, the R must adopt a specific role that is non-disruptive + a good vantage point for observations

Question 52

outline ‘staying in’ observation groups

Answer 52

• when accepted, the R must be involved enough to understand the group fully whilst staying detached to remain unbiased

Question 53

outline ‘getting out’ of observation groups

Answer 53

• leaving a group the R has become acclimatised to and then re-entering reality can be difficult
• loyalty to the group may prevent the R from fully disclosing all details to protect them

Question 54

outline overt observation in terms of PERVRT

Answer 54

• P: lacks, may not be bale to gain access (e.g. to schools), have to work around timetables/ holidays, and schools may be less likely to allow your access if they know you’re a researcher
• E: has, has informed consent, no deceit
• R: lacks, no standardised, repeatable procedure
• V: lacks, doesn’t as provide in depth info + Hawthorne Effect/ impression management
• R: has, schools are representative of population
• T: pos: like structured NPO; can easily quantify data - don’t like PO. Int: like PO - gives rich data

Question 55

outline covert observation in terms of PERVRT

Answer 55

• P: lacks, issue of access - headteacher acts as gatekeeper
• E: lacks informed consent - issue of deceit
• R: gives qual data
• V: has, more valid data - no Hawthorne effect/ no impression management. lacks, cant openly take notes - take them from memory
• R: has, schools are representative of population
• T: Positivists dislike, Int like

Question 56

outline participant observation in terms of PERVR

Answer 56

• P: lacks, time-consuming, must be trained, issue of access, hard to quantify large amounts of qual data. BUT, PO may be the only option for access - e.g. deviant people suspicious of RM like interviews, first-hand experience provides great insight (verstehen), its flexible (can enter the research open-mindedly + research Qs when new situations arise)
• E: lacks, if covert, there is issue of deceit
• R: lacks, doesn’t have a standardised procedure, so not easily replicable. also, produces qualitative data so cant easily compare data / identify trends
• V: has, provides rich qualitative research, ‘verstehen’, can build a rapport, flexibility, BUT, Hawthorne effect (in overt O)
• R: lacks, PO study groups are small + the sample wont perfectly reflect population in the way a stratified random sample would

Question 57

outline participant observation in terms of Theoretical perspectives (+ social action)

Answer 57

Interpretivists:
- like: gains insight into actor’s meanings
- the R can gain a subjective understanding of the subject’s life through their high level of involvement (verstehen)
Positivists:
- dislike: lacks representativeness due to small sample size and so isnt generalisable
- lacks reliability as PO isnt a standardised, scientific measuring instrument
- lacks objectivity - R can get attached/ loyal to subjects
social action:
- like: PO allows for observations of micro-level interactions first-hand

Question 58

define verstehen

Answer 58

• verstehen = understanding someones lived experience (putting yourself in someone else’s shoes)

Question 59

outline non-participant observation in terms of PERVRT

Answer 59

• P: lacks, time-consuming, issue of access, must be trained
• E: lacks, if covert - issue of lack of informed consent
• R: lacks, no standardised procedure, so not easily replicable. also, produces qualitative data - cant easily compare data / identify trends
• V: lacks, wont be as much of a true picture
• R: lacks, PO study groups are small + the sample wont perfectly reflect population in the way a stratified random sample would
• T: Pos like structured NPO

Question 60

outline documents

Answer 60

• is a secondary source
• documents include: written texts (diaries, letters, texts, state records etc), other texts (paintings, music, photos etc)
• 3 types of documents: public (produced by organisations - e.g. media output, Ofsted), personal (e.g. letters, photo albums, social media pages), and historical (personal or public docs made in the past)

Question 61

outline documents in terms of PERVR

Answer 61

• P: has, cheap + easy access for most Ds - not all, may be only available source for historical info, saves time. lacks, is it authentic, not always possible to access
• E: has, may lack consent of the person who owns that D (esp. if historical)
• R: lacks, Ds are unique + not standardised
• V: has, verstehen. lacks, Ds can be personal + not objective - can create a false view of someone - e.g. diaries - was it written to be published?
• R: lacks, with Hist. Ds, not representative + typical of all views of that period, aren’t many Hist Ds - cant generalise, some groups may not be represented in docs (e.g. the illiterate), not all Ds are accessible, not all Ds survive

Question 62

outline documents in terms of Theoretical perspectives

Answer 62

Interpretivists
- like: provides a valid picture of actors’ meanings, lack of Hawthorne effect as they aren’t written for sociological use
Positivists
- dislike: theyre unreliable - they arent standardised, unrepresentative as some may not be represented in docs (e.g. the illiterate),

Question 63

outline Scott’s 4 criteria for assessing document’s validity - CRAM

Answer 63

CRAM:
1) Credibility: is it believable + sincere, diaries of politicians may be intended for publication, does it historically match up to the events of the time?
2) Representativeness: are other Ds of the period typical to that one, not all survived Ds are available for public use,
3) Authenticity: is the D what it claims to be, are there missing pages, who wrote it
4) Meaning: the researcher may need special skills to understand a D - e.g. translate from another language. also, meanings change over time

Question 64

outline official statistics

Answer 64

• OS are produced by the gov/ official bodies
• they are a secondary source
• the yearly UK Census is a major source of OS
• OS are collected for policy-making
• there are also non-official statistics made by non-state organisations - e.g. by charities

Question 65

outline official statistics in terms of PERVR

Answer 65

• P: has; is a source of lots of data, allows comparison of trends/ patterns between groups over time, state holds power to get data that sociologists cannot, high response rate. lacks; the stats are made for Govt use - not sociologists’ - may not offer vital sociological data, definitions used may be different (e.g. truancy) + change over time,
• E: has, compared to other methods
• R: has, standardised procedure, uses a standardised measuring instrument. lacks, occasional random errors in filling out the forms/ in coding
• V: there can be a ‘dark figure’ of unrecorded data which skews the V of OS. e.g. some births, marriages go unrecorded
• R: has, OS like the Census are taken by the whole population, due to big budget it has a large sample size

Question 66

outline official statistic’s Theoretical perspectives from Positivists + Interpretivists

Answer 66

Positivists:
- like: ‘OS are social facts’, are objective, reliable, representative, quantitative, can identify patterns, test hypotheses
Interpretivists:
- dislike: invalid as OS are socially constructed - they represent labels attached to people - e.g. OS on mentally ill people reflect those who get a diagnosis, which isnt everyone - OS don’t reflect a ‘real rate’

Question 67

outline official statistic’s Theoretical perspectives from Marxists + Feminists

Answer 67

Marxists:
- OS arent objective facts, they reflect the interests of the ruling class
- OS are a part of Althusser’s ISA - they distort reality to maintain the capitalist’s power - e.g. evidence of exploitation isn’t published
- the definitions change; e.g. the definition of unemployment is changed to reduce the official numbers of unemployed
Feminists:
- state creation of OS legitimises gender inequality - e.g. there are few stats on women’s unpaid domestic labour - underestimating w’s economic contribution

Question 68

define soft statistics

Answer 68

• soft statistics = data that is difficult to measure as its people’s opinions or feelings
• reflects a picture of administrative agencies, not a real world picture
• SS neglect a dark figure of unrecorded cases - e.g. unreported incidents of racism in school

Question 69

define hard statistics

Answer 69

• hard statistics = reliable + valid data taken from official or organisational bodies
• HS are created from registration data
• there is little dispute over the categories used to collect data - e.g. death, divorce

Question 70

outline ‘going native’

Answer 70

• ‘going native’ refers to a danger of participation observation where one over-identifies with the group and forms a bias
• they have stopped being an objective observer and have become a member of the group

Question 71

outline relationship to education for RM analysis

Answer 71

• the research group may have a more positive or negative relationship with education
• how will this impact the findings
• how will the method interact with this issue
• e.g. ethnic minorities/ WC may have a negative relationship with education

Question 72

define rapport

Answer 72

• rapport = a relationship built between the researcher and the participant(s)
• allows research to be more valid and in depth

Question 73

what is a longitudinal study

Answer 73

• a study conducted throughout a long period of time

Question 74

outline content analysis

Answer 74

• content analysis is a method for quantifying content - esp from mass media
• 2 types: formal content analysis + thematic analysis

Question 75

outline content analysis

Answer 75

• 2 types: formal content analysis + thematic content analysis
• formal CA: produces quant data from qual by categorising and counting. positivists (objectivity + representativeness) and feminists like this
• thematic CA: a qual analysis of media content used by Ints + feminists. aims to reveal underlying meanings to uncover the author’s bias