Gender Differences Flashcards
name a concept that was used as an excuse to pay women less in the earlier years
- ‘dress money’; employers would pay women less due to the idea that women would spend it on ‘less important’ things, like dresses, makeup, compared to bills, food which would be paid for by their husbands
why do girls read more than boys
- in primary socialisation; g may be more likely to be read to than boys
- reading is seen as a feminised activity - which may put off boys from doing it due to stigma
- this enables girls to outperform boys
what is the only subject where boys outperform girls in GCSE’s
- maths - but even then its a 1% difference
what did Lobban (1974) say about school reading material
Lobban (1974): she found that in reading materials in schools, there were only 1/2 as many female than male characters - and those shown were largely shown in a domestic setting
- also there were 1/2 as many heroines as heros
what is the percentage gap between girls and boys in A-Level results
- 10%
outline the concept of coursework
- girls tend to do better than boys in coursework - it requires regular work, dedication
outline the gender achievement on starting school
- children are initially given a baseline assessment - girls scored higher in all tests
outline the gender achievement at KS1-2
- girls continue to do consistently better than boys - especially in English
outline the gender achievement at GCSE
- girls are more likely to pass and get higher results, although the gap is much narrower at GCSE
outline the gender achievement at A-Level
- the gender achievement gap stand at around 10% with girls still outperforming boys
how does girls’ better organisation + meeting deadline skills stem from their primary socialisation
- girls’ childhood games required more time, focus, planning, teamwork
outline the gender achievement at higher education
- before 1997, boys were more likely to stay in higher education, those trends have since been reversed
outline the gender achievement on vocational courses
- a larger proportion of girls achieve distinctions in every subject - even in building/construction - where girls are the minority
outline changes in the family as a reason for gender differences
there have been changes such as:
- increase in divorce: more money, usually mother is primary caregiver - provides a strong motivational female role model for girls
- more lone parent (matrifocal) families - provides strong role f model
- smaller families: there’s a correlation between educated parents (mothers) and small families
- increase in cohabitation - there’s less of a patriarchal/ male dominated role model - provides independent female role model for girls
outline the impact of the feminist movement on changing gender norms
- since the start of the feminist movement in the 1960s, attitudes towards women have shifted
- McRobbie illustrates this in her study of girls’ magazines: 1970s; magazines like ‘Jackie’ emphasised the importance of marriage, whereas now, they contain images of assertive + independent women
- contextual e.g: in 2020; Lizzo on the front cover of Vogue (plus size WOC), Kamala Harris as VP
outline changing ambitions as a reason for gender differences
- Sharpe (also found by Fuller in 2011) interviewed girls in the 70s and 90s and found that there was a shift in future aspirations;
- 70s: low aspirations, as education wasnt feminine. they prioritised love, marriage, husbands and children
- 90s: girls saw their future including a career + being less dependent on men. marriage and children weren’t huge aspects of their life plan
what is an A03 evaluation point for women doing well in education
- FTSE Top 100 grossing companies, theres 6 female CEOs compared to 94 male CEOs in 2021
- although women perform significantly better in education; theyre not in the workplace - due to glass ceiling
outline law changes in employment as a reason for gender differences
- the following laws have helped to create more equality in employment
- some women are breaking through glass ceilings - an invisible barrier that keeps them out of high paying roles
- 1970 Equal Pay Act, 1975 Sex Discrimination Act/ 2010 Equality Act
- this may motivate girls more to do well in education as a good career is more accessible
- Liberal Feminists would argue that these laws have eliminated all inequality
name a campaign aiming to get girls into STEM
- Pretty Curious
- GIST (Girls Into STEM)
- WISE (Women into Science and Engineering)
when was the National Curriculum introduced + what it was
- introduced in 1988 and removed previous inequality as all students had to study the same subjects
- made science a core subject
what is the percentage ratio of female to male primary school teachers
- 80% are female, 20% are male
- provides young girls with positive educated female role models
outline Mitsos and Browne (1998) ideas about coursework
girls do better in coursework based subjects because they are:
- better organised
- spend more time on their work
- are better at meeting deadlines
- are more likely to bring the correct equipment to class
- have better language skills (and so do better in oral exams)
how does girls spending more time on their work stem from their primary socialisation
- they did more time consuming games
- ‘Bedroom Culture’ - spending more time planning and organising their games - used more teamwork skills in games
how does girls’ better language skills stem from their primary socialisation
- when playing childhood games, girls use more words compared to boys doing sports
- more likely to read and be read to - may be seen as a feminised task - creating a stigma for boys & reading
whats an A03 evaluation for girls outperforming boys due to socialisation
- Gonrad (2005): boys aren’t doing well due to changed system of assessment
what does French say about teacher attention
- French (1993): most attention directed towards boys is in relation to behaviour and reprimands
what does Francis say about teacher attention
- Francis: boys are punished more harshly, and felt picked on by teachers who had lower expectations of them
what does Swann say about gendered communication styles
- Swann (1998): there are differences in gendered communication styles
- boys dominate whole class discussions + are more likely to interupt teachers
- girls prefer paired/ group work and are better at listening + taking turns to express their views
what is the Liberal feminist view on girls’ achievement
- gradual progress and gender equality has been made
- more work opportunities for women
- programmes like GIST and WISE help women in STEM
- progress will continue with improved policies, attitudes and laws
what is the link between marketisation and girls’ achievement
- Slee: schools market their schools as female - centered to attract more female pupils as they achieve higher and have less behavioural issues
- this is done through subjects offered, more pictures of girls on the website, etc
what is the Radical feminist view on girls’ achievement
- although new laws for gender equality have been made, women are still in a patriarchal (male-dominated) system because;
- sexual harassment still occurs in schools
- education still limits girls in subject choices and career options
- women are underrepresented in many aspects of the curriculum
what did Archer find in her study of working class girls
- Archer: w/c girls gain symbolic capital from their peers through feminine identities (heavy makeup, jewellery, having a BF, being loud)
- this brings them into conflict with school, preventing them from acquiring educational and thus economical capital
outline hyper-heterosexual feminine identities among w/c girls
- many girls spend considerable time, effort, money contructing ‘desirable’ hyper heterosexual identities
- this identity combines black urban american style, sportwear and sexy clothes as well as heavy makeup
- this brought status / symbolic capital from peers as well as avoiding being ridiculed as a ‘tramp’
how does the hyper heterosexual feminine identities of w/c girls bring themselves into conflict with schools
- teachers saw girls’ preocupation with appearance as a distraction form education - led them to ‘othering’ them - theyre less worthy of respect + incapable of educaitonal success
- this is symbolic violence
- schools’ ideal pupil: m/c and desexualised
outline boys and literacy
- boy have lower levels of literacy. reasons for this may be;
- parents spend less time reading to their sons, and if they are read to, its usually by mothers - which makes reading seem like a feminised task
- boys are often steered towards sports + computer games which don’t develop literacy skills
outline the working class girls’ dilemma
- either gaining symbolic capital from peers by conforming to hyper heterosexual feminine identity
- OR gaining educational capital by rejecting their w/c identity and conforming to schools’ m/c habitus
what did Evans find in her study of w/c girls in relation to uni
- girls wanted to go to uni to increase their earining power to help their families
- cost and fear of debt are major issues for many w/c students
- whilst living at home makes higher education more affordable, it also limited choice of unis and market value of degrees
outline an A03 evaluation of boys lacking literacy skills
- there are programs to help this matter;
- the National Literacy Strategy focuses on improving boys’ reading
- Reading Champions scheem uses male role models celebratin their own reading interests
- Dads and Sons encourages fathers to be more involved with their sons’ education
outline globalisation and boys’ achievement
- since the 80s, there has been a decline in industries like mining, manufactoring
- Mitsos + Browne: this decline in male employment opportunites has led to an identity crisis for men
- many boys now believe they have little career opportunities and so lack motivation
outline an A03 evaluation for globalisation and boys’ achievement
- in the modern day, many boys in school dont aspire to work in mines - its an outdated view
outline the feminisation of education
- Sewell: the whole education system is geared towards girls - they nurture feminine traits such as organisation, neatness and tentativeness, bringing in homework on time
- these skills are often taught early in girls’ primary socialisation
- boys are often socialised to be more competitive, aggressive and loud
outline an A03 evaluation about feminisation of education and boys’ underachievement
- Francis: 2/3 of 7-8 year olds believe gender doesnt matter
- Read: criticises the claim that only male teachers can exert firm disciplinarian discourse ‘needed’ for boys as most female teachers use this type of discipline
outline laddish subcultures + how boys will be treated if they dont conform to it
- Francis: Laddish subcultures is becoming more widespread due to girls moving into traditionally masculine areas such as education
- boys respond by becoming increasingly laddish to contruct themselves as non-feminine
- if boys dont conform, they would be harrassed with homophobic verbal abuse - being called ‘swats’ or ‘sissies’
why may education be seen as feminine among the W/C
- in w/c culture, masculinity is equated with being tough and doing manual labour
- non-manual work, such as school work, is seen as effeminate and inferior
outline boys and role models
- theres a shortage of male role models at home and in school - causes boys underachivement
- there are many boys being raised in the 3.2 million female-led lone parent families
- theres also a shortage of male primary school teachers (20% are male)
outline an A03 evaluation for girls’ educational policies
- critics of feminism: policies to help female achievement are no longer needed, as girls ‘have it all’
outline Murphy’s study
- Murphy: she asked boys and girls to design boats and vehicles and to write an estate agents advert for a house
- boys designed sports cars, powerboats, battleships with elaborate weaponry and little living accomodation
- whereas girs designed family cars
- when writing estate agent adverts, boys focused on masculine spaces, such as a garage space
- girls focused on aspects such as decor and the kitchen design
outline gender domains
- tasks / activities that are seen as gendered and are therfore relevant to themselves ro not
- children are ususally more confident + comfortable engagin in tasks that they see as part of their domain
- girls: caring for a sick child, working in a nursey, cooking
- boys: builder / electrician / plumber, constructing and using machinery, mending a car
outline gender socialisation + theorist’s perspectives
- Oakley (1973): sex is our inborn physical difference, whereas gender is taught + learned through socialisation
- gender role socialisation is the process of learning the roles played by men and women in society
- Norman (1988): reveals how different dress, activities and characteristics are assigned to each sex
outline gendered subjects for differences in subject choice
- some subjects are seen as either masculine or feminine. for example, science is seen as a masculine subject
- science teachers are most likely to be male
- boys dominate lab settings
- computers involve machine work
outline peer pressure and gender differences in subject choice
- Paetcher: students apply pressure to stay within their gender domain otherwise there will be social judgement
- girls who do masculine subjects may be labelled as lesbian or butch
outline gendered career opportunities and gender differences in subject choice
- over 1/2 of women’s employment falls into one of these four categories: clerical, secretarial, personal services and cleaning
- only 1/6 of men work on these jobs
- the ‘sex typing’ of these occupations means that boys and girls will have different ideas as to what jobs are ‘for them’
- this can influence which subjects pupils choices of subjects
outline an A03 evaluation for gendered subject choice
- Leonard (2006): students from same sex schools are less likely to hold gendered subject images
outline verbal abuse in relation to hegemonic masculinity
- Connell: there’s a ‘rich vocabulary of abuse’ which keeps men in their dominant position
- Lees: there is verbal abuse towards women who are sexually promiscuous (called ‘slags or ‘drags’ if they don’t ‘put out)
- Parker: a dominant male identity is also enforced through calling boys ‘gay’ if they deviate from the masculine identity
outline a double standard
- a double standard is when a set of standards are applied to one group but not another
- Lees (1993): for example, if a girl performs in an overly sexual manner - she is labelled as a slag. whereas if a boy acted the same, he gains respect
define male gaze
- male gaze = the visual aspect in which female identity is controlled, through the way that male teachers and peers scrutinise + sexualise female pupils
outline female peer groups
- Archer: w/c girls gain symbolic capital from a hyper heterosexual feminine identity
- Ringrose: found in her study that being popular was crucial and there was often conflict between; an idealised feminine identity and a sexualised identity (competing for boys)
- there was a balance between not being slut shamed and not being too frigid
outline teachers and discipline in relation to hegemonic masculinity
- Mac and Ghaill: male teachers told off boys for ‘behaving like a girl’ and teased them when they did worse in a test compared to girls
- feminists: toxic masculinity is still prevalent in schools today
- male teachers can use gendered terms to address their
outline male peer groups in relation to hegemonic masculinity
- Epstein and Willis: boys in anti-school subcultures will label hard working boys as effeminate
- effortless achievement is the ultimate goal for m/c boys
state a contemporary example for how gender expectations are enforced
- hegemonic masculinity/ gender ideas are enforced through social media - particularly for girls - due to the filters, desire for likes, the influencers
outline Ringrose’s view
- Ringrose: by focusing on boys, there’s a distraction from the problems faced by the w/c, ethnic minorities, and girls in education
how many lone parent families are there in the uk
- 3.2 million are female led
- 15 percent are male led
outline male teacher’s communication styles
- they refer to male pupils as ‘mate’ (equality, masculinity), and female pupils as ‘love’ (nurturing, condescending, feminine)
- this reinforces gender roles; men as dominant, and women as caregivers, and inferior
- feminists: perpetuates a patriarchal framework
