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Psychology > Research methods Year 1 > Flashcards

Research methods Year 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

what is a laboratory experiment

A

conducted in a highly controlled environment
not necessarily a lab

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2
Q

What are the different types of experiments/experimental methods

A

laboratory
field
natural
quasi

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3
Q

Strengths of laboratory experiments

A

Control of confounding and extraneous variables
high internal validity
replication is easier

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4
Q

Limitations of laboratory experiments

A

Lack generalisability (artificial)
low external validity
demand characteristics

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5
Q

What is a field experiment

A

IV is manipulated in a natural more everyday setting
set in participants normal environment

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6
Q

Strengths of field experiments

A

high external validity
higher mundane realism

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7
Q

Limitations of field experiments

A

less control of confounding and extraneous variable
replication is harder
ethical issues if Ps are not aware they are being studied

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8
Q

What is a natural experiment

A

researcher has no control over the IV e.g. before and after a natural disaster or if a child was in hospital age 5-10

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9
Q

strengths of a natural experiment

A

provide opportunity for research that could not have been done for practical or ethical reasons e.g. orphan studies
high external validity

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10
Q

Limitations of natural experiments

A

Ps are not randomly allocated to conditions so may have confounding variables
may have limited generalisability if event happens rarely
as IV is not manipulated by researcher cause cannot be established

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11
Q

What is a quasi-experiment

A

IV is based off an existing difference between people e.g. age and gender

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12
Q

strength of quasi-experiments

A

soften carried out under controlled conditions so have same strengths as lab experiments

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13
Q

Limitations of quasi-experiments

A

cannot randomly allocate Ps to conditions so may have confounding variables
as IV is not manipulated on purpose cause cannot be established

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14
Q

what are the types of observations

A

naturalistic
controlled
covert
overt
participant
non-participant

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15
Q

what is a naturalistic observation

A

take place in the setting where the target behaviour would naturally occur

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16
Q

what is a controlled observation

A

some control over variables such as manipulating variables to observe effect and to control confounding/extraneous variables

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17
Q

what is a covert observation

A

participants are unaware they are the focus of a study and that they are being observed

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18
Q

what is an overt observation

A

participants know their behaviour is being observed and have given consent beforehand

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19
Q

what is a participant observation

A

the observer is part of the group they are studying

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20
Q

what is a non-participant experiment

A

researcher remains separate from the people they are studying

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21
Q

what are the self-report techniques

A

questionnaires
interviews

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22
Q

what are open questions

A

does not have a fixed range of answers
Ps are free to answer in any way they want
tend to produce qualitative data

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22
Q

what is a questionnaire

A

pre-set list of written questions for a participant to respond to

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23
Q

types of questions in questionnaires

A

open
closed

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24
Q

what are closed questions

A

have a fixed range of answers
tend to produce quantitative data

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25
Q

what is a structured interview

A

pre-determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed order

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26
Q

What are the types of interviews

A

structured
unstructured

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27
Q

what is an unstructured interview

A

no set questions
general aim of the topic to be discussed
free-flowing and more conversation like

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28
Q

strengths of questionnaires

A

cost effective as gathers a lot of data quickly when sent to lots of people
less effort as researcher does not have to be present

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29
Q

Limitations of questionnaires

A

social desirability bias means people le to present themselves in a positive light
response bias e.g. always ticking yes (acquiescence bias) of answering at one end of a scale

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30
Q

Strengths of structured interviews

A

easy to replicate
reduces differences between interviewers

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31
Q

limitations of structured interviews

A

interviewers cannot deviate from questions or explain the questions limiting richness of data

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32
Q

strengths of unstructured interviews

A

more flexibility to follow up points
gain more insight into interviewee
unexpected information

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33
Q

limitations of unstructured interviews

A

interviewer bias
data analysis is difficult as much of the info is irrelevant

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34
Q

What is a correlation

A

illustrates the strength and direction of an association between 2 or more co-variables

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35
Q

How are correlations plotted

A

scattergrams

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36
Q

what is the difference between correlations and experiments

A

experiments the researcher controls or manipulates the independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable - causation can be established
correlations the IV is not being manipulated and cause and effect cannot be established

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37
Q

What is an aim

A

statement of what the researchers intended to find out in a research study

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38
Q

what is a hypothesis

A

precise testable statement about the relationship between variables
must be operationalised

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39
Q

what is a directional hypothesis

A

only when there is previous data on the subject
states the direction of the predicted difference between to conditions or groups

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40
Q

What is a non-directional hypothesis

A

when there is no previous research on the topic
predicts that there is simply as difference between two conditions or groups without stating the direction of the difference

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41
Q

difference between population and sample

A

population is the large group of people that a researcher is interested in studying
sample is a small representative group from the target population to generalise from

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42
Q

What is random sampling

A

lottery technique used to select from list of every member of population e.g. draw names from hat

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43
Q

What is a systematic sample

A

selecting every nth person e.g. every 5th person in a register

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44
Q

what is stratified sampling

A

produced by identifying subgroups according to their frequency in the population
Ps in subgroups are selected randomly

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45
Q

what is volunteer sampling

A

study is advertised e.g. in newspaper or internet
people volunteer to be studied

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45
Q

what is opportunity sampling

A

people are selected who are most easily available at the time of the study

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46
Q

opportunity sample strengths

A

easy
less time consuming

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47
Q

opportunity sample limitations

A

biased as drawn from small part of population who may all have something in common that means they are available

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48
Q

random sampling strengths

A

unbiassed
all members of population have equal chance of being selected

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49
Q

random sampling limitations

A

need to have list of all members then contact those selected which is time consuming
people selected may not say yes

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50
Q

stratified sampling strengths

A

more representative
unbiassed

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51
Q

stratified sampling limitation

A

very time consuming to identify strata then randomly select people and contact them
those contacted may not want to participate

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52
Q

systematic sampling strengths

A

unbiassed as system is objective

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53
Q

systematic sampling limitations

A

not truly unbiassed unless start person is selected randomly

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54
Q

volunteer sample strengths

A

access to variety of people e.g. everyone who reads the newspaper which may make a representative and less biassed sample

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55
Q

volunteer sample limitations

A

biased as people are likely to be motivated or those with time on their hands, may be in need or money this results in volunteer bias

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56
Q

what is a pilot study

A

a small-scale trial run of a study to test any aspects of the design with a view to make improvements

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57
Q

what are the types of experimental design

A

repeated measures
independent groups
matched pairs

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58
Q

what is repeated measures design

A

each participant takes part in every level of the independent variable

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59
Q

limitation of repeated measures

A

order effects e.g. may do better in second condition because of practice or worse because of fatigue
more likely to guess the purpose of the experiment which may affect behaviour

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60
Q

how to deal with limitations of repeated measures

A

counterbalancing overcomes order effects
1 groups will do conditions A then B
1 group will do conditions B then A

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61
Q

What is an independent groups design

A

participants are allocated to groups
each group does a different level of the IV

62
Q

limitations of independent groups

A

participant variables cannot be controlled and they may act as confounding variables
more participants are needed

63
Q

how to overcome limitations of independent groups

A

random allocation to groups distributes participant variables evenly theoretically

64
Q

what is a matched pairs design

A

pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables that will effect results
the member of each pair are allocated to different IV conditions

65
Q

limitations of matched pairs

A

time consuming and difficult to match Ps
not all participant variables can be controlled

66
Q

how to overcome limitations of matched pairs

A

match on less variables to make it easier
conduct pilot study to find variables to consider matching

67
Q

what is needed to design an observation

A

behavioural categories
type of sampling

68
Q

types of sampling in observations

A

event sampling
time sampling

69
Q

what is event sampling

A

counting the number of times a certain behaviour occurs

70
Q

what is time sampling

A

recording behaviours in a given time frame e.g. what is the participant doing every 15 seconds

71
Q

how to determine behavioural categories in observations

A

must be objective
must cover all possible component behaviours
must be mutually exclusive

72
Q

how to write good questionnaire questions

A

make sure questions have clarity
don’t use biassed questions (leading questions)
use questions that can be easily analysed (mainly closed questions)

73
Q

how to write a good questionnaire

A

use filler questions to reduce demand characteristics
questions sequence - start with easy questions so by the hard questions the P has relaxed
pilot study to test and refine questions
sampling technique for respondent

74
Q

how to design an interview

A

record the interview
think about the effect of the interviewer
think about questioning skills in an unstructured interview

75
Q

why record an interview

A

so interviewer can pay attention to listening instead of taking notes

76
Q

what is the effect of an interviewer

A

interested interviewer may increase the amount of information provided by P
to display interest think of non-verbal communication and knowing when to speak/not interupting

77
Q

what questioning skills are needed in an unstructured interview

A

what kind of follow up questions to ask
avoid repeating questions
avoid probing
ask focused questions

78
Q

open questions strengths

A

Ps can expand on their answer - more detail and information collected
provide unexpected answers which can provide insight

79
Q

open questions limitations

A

most Ps avoid giving long complex answers so may not provide extra information
produce qualitative data which is hard to summarise and draw conclusions from

80
Q

closed questions strengths

A

limited range of answers which produces quantitative data
answers are easier to analyse and draw conclusions from

81
Q

closed questions limitations

A

P may be forced to select from answers that don’t represent their real thoughts - data lacks validity
Ps may say don’t know or have a preference to say yes (acquiescence bias) - data is not informative

82
Q

what is the dependent variable

A

what is being measured

83
Q

what is the independent variable

A

the variable that is directly manipulated by the researcher to tests its effect on the dependent variable

84
Q

what is operationalising

A

ensuring that variables are in a form that can be easily tested e.g. intelligence may be operationalised as IQ score

85
Q

what is control of a variable

A

the extent to which any variable is held constant or regulated by a researcher

86
Q

what is an extraneous variable

A

don not vary systematically with the IV so do not act as an alternate IV but may have an effect on the DV
make it more difficult to detect a significant effect

87
Q

what is a confounding variable

A

a variable that is not the IV but varies systematically with the IV
changes in the DV may be due to the confounding variable rather than the IV so the outcome is meaningless

88
Q

what is standardisations

A

ensuring that all participants receives the same set of procedures so the study can be repeated

89
Q

what are demand characteristics

A

when participants become aware of the aims of the study which may make them behave in a different way

90
Q

what are investigator effects

A

anything an investigator does that has an effect of the Ps performance other than what was intended
may act as a confounding or extraneous variable

91
Q

how to reduce demand characteristics

A

single blind design

92
Q

what is a single blind design

A

the participant is not aware of the research aims and/or which conditions of the experiment they are receiving

93
Q

how to reduce investigator effects

A

double blind design

94
Q

what is a double blind design

A

the participator and the person conducting the experiment do not know the aims and/or hypothesis

95
Q

What is the role of the British Psychological society code of ethics

A

includes a set of ethical guidelines
researchers have a professional duty to observe these guidelines when conducting research
guidelines are implemented by ethics committees in research institutions

96
Q

what are the 6 ethical issues

A

informed consent
deception
right to withdraw
protection from harm
confidentiality
privacy

97
Q

what is confidentiality

A

concerns the communication of personal information from one person to another and the trust that the information will be protected

98
Q

what is deception

A

when a participant is not told the true aims of a study and thus cannot truly give informed consent

99
Q

what is informed consent

A

participants must be
given a comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it to make an informed decisions as to whether or not to participate

100
Q

what is privacy

A

a persons right to control the flow of information about themselves

101
Q

what is protection from harm

A

during research participants should not experience negative physical or psychological effects

102
Q

what is the right to withdraw

A

participants can stop participating in a study at any time if they are uncomfortable in any way
participants have the right to refuse permissions for the researcher to use any of the data they produced

103
Q

how to deal with informed consent

A

participants should be given a consent letter detailing all relevant information that might affect their decision to participate
parental consent is required for Ps under 16

104
Q

how to deal with deception and prevention from harm

A

at the end of a study Ps should be given a full debrief to be made aware of the true aims of the study and any details not supplied with during the study e.g. other groups
Ps should be tole what their data will be used for and that they have the right to withdraw their data
in extreme cases counselling may be given

105
Q

how to deal with confidentiality

A

maintain anonymity using participant numbers or initials
reminded in debriefing that their data will be protected and not shared

106
Q

alternative ways of getting consent

A

presumptive consent
prior general consent
retrospective consent

107
Q

what is presumptive consent

A

similar group of people to the Ps are asked if they would give consent

108
Q

what is prior general consent

A

Ps give permission to take part in a number of studies including one that will involve deception - consenting to be deceived

109
Q

what is retrospective consent

A

Ps are asked for consent in the debriefing after already taking part in the study

110
Q

what is the role of peer review

A

establishing validity and accuracy of research
ensure any research published is of high quality

111
Q

main aims of peer review

A

allocate research funding
validate the quality, accuracy and relevance of the research
suggest amendments or improvements
preventing inaccurate or false data from entering the public domain

112
Q

how is peer review carried out

A

a panel of independent experts scrutinise all aspects of the written investigation

113
Q

problems with peer review

A

publication bias
preserving the status quo
anonymity of reviewers

114
Q

what is publication bias

A

journals tend to prefer to publish positive results which can result in misperception of the true facts
journals also avoid publishing replications which are important for validity

115
Q

what is preserving the status quo

A

there is a preference for research that goes with existing theories rather than dissenting

116
Q

what is the problem with anonymity of reviewers

A

reviewers may use the anonymity to bury opposing research to their own or settle rivalries

117
Q

3 implications of psychological research for the economy

A

role of the father - mother can go back to work
treatment of mental disorders - less absence from work for mental disorders
improving eyewitness testimony - less money spent on wrongful conviction

118
Q

what is randomisation

A

use of chance methods to reduce researchers unconscious bias in designing an experiment e.g. random order of words in a memory test or using a randomiser to determine which order Ps do IV conditions in

119
Q

what is qualitative data

A

information in words that cannot be counted or quantified

120
Q

what is quantitative data

A

information that can be represented in numbers and can be measured

121
Q

how is qualitative data collected

A

data is observed not measured
observes people through the messages they produce and the way they act
concerned with beliefs attitudes and emotions

122
Q

how is quantitative data collected

A

data is measured
psychologists develop measures of psychological variables

123
Q

quantitative data strengths

A

easy to analyse using descriptive and inferential statistics
conclusions easily drawn

124
Q

quantitative data limitations

A

may oversimplify reality so conclusions may be meaningless

125
Q

qualitative data strengths

A

rich detailed information
unexpected insight

126
Q

qualitative data limitations

A

much more difficult to analyse and draw conclusions from

127
Q

what is primary data

A

information observed or collected directly from first hand experience

128
Q

what is secondary data

A

information used in a research study that was collected by someone else or for a purpose other than the current one

129
Q

primary data strengths

A

researcher has control over the data
data collection designed to fit the aims of the study

130
Q

primary data limitations

A

very lengthy and expensive process

131
Q

secondary data strengths

A

simpler and cheaper to use someone else’s data and takes less time
data may have been subject to statistical tests so it is already known whether it is significant

132
Q

secondary data limitations

A

the data may not exactly fit the needs of the study

133
Q

what is a meta-analysis

A

a number of studies are identified that have investigated the same aims/hypotheses
results of these studies are poled to produce a joint conclusion or statistic to represent the overall effect

134
Q

meta-analysis strengths

A

reviewing from more than one study can increase the validity of the conclusions as it is a wider sample of Ps
often studies produce different results meta-analysis allows an overall conclusion

135
Q

meta-analysis limitations

A

research design in the studies may vary so studies are not comparable

136
Q

what are descriptive statistics

A

mean
median
mode
range
standard deviation

137
Q

what are measures of central tendency

A

provide information about a typical value for a data set
mean
median
mode

138
Q

what are measures of dispersion

A

provide information about how spread out a set of data is
range
standard deviation

139
Q

when to use the mean

A

interval level data

140
Q

when to use the median

A

interval and ordinal level data

141
Q

when to use the mode

A

nominal, ordinal and interval level data

142
Q

what is a positive correlation

A

the two variables increase together

143
Q

what is a negative correlation

A

as one variable increase the other decreases

144
Q

what is a zero correlation

A

there is not relationship between the variables

145
Q

when to use a table

A

raw data before descriptive statistics have been carried out

146
Q

when to use a bar chart

A

non-continuous data
nominal data

147
Q

when to use a histogram

A

continuous data in categories

148
Q

when to use a line graph

A

continuous data

149
Q

when to use a scattergram

A

correlations

150
Q

what is normal distribution

A

a symmetrical bell shaped frequency distribution
most of the scores are clustered close to the mean median and mode
the mean median and mode are at the mid-point

151
Q

what is positive skewed distribution

A

most of the scores are to the left
the mode is to the left of the mean as the mean is effected by extreme scores to the right

152
Q

what is negative skewed distribution

A

most of the scores are bunched towards the right
the mode is to the right of the mean as the mean is effected by extreme scores to the left

153
Q
A

Psychology (7 decks)

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