Attatchment Flashcards
What are care-giver infant interactions
the reciprocal relationship between an infant and their caregiver. It involves the communication and emotional exchanges between the two parties, which have a profound impact on the infant’s development.
What is reciprocity
responding to the action of the other party with a similar action
Action of one elicits a response in the other conversation like creating a rhythm
What is interactional synchrony
When the two people interact and the mirror what the other is doing with both facial and body movement
Evaluation of infant-caregiver interactions - problems with infants
infants mouth are in fairly constant motion and the expression tested occur frequently e.g. yawning, smiling, tongue out. This makes it difficult to distinguish between general activity and specifically imitated behaviour
Meltzoff and Moore recorded the infants and got external observers to overcome this
Evaluation of caregiver infant interactions - research support
Meltzoff and Moore (1977) found infants as young as 2 weeks imitated hand and face gestures from and adult model
Evaluation of caregiver infant interactions - individual differences
Individual differences - Isabella et al (1989) found that more strongly attached infant care giver pairs showed greater interactional synchrony.
Evaluation of caregiver infant interactions - failure to replicate
Other studies have not been able to replicate meltzoff and moore e.g. Koepe
Reduces reliability
Could be because of methodology
Schaffer’s stages of attachment (1964)
Longitudinal study followed 60 infants from working class families in Glasgow over 2 years
Asocial attachment
Indiscriminate attachment
Discriminate/specific attachment
Multiple attachment
What is asocial attachment
0-2 months
Behaviour between humans and non-humans is similar
happier with humans than alone
Prefer faces to non-faces
smile at anyone
accept comfort form anyone
What is indiscriminate attachment
2-7 months
recognise and prefer familiar people
smile more at familiar faces
Preference for people rather than inanimate objects
don’t show separation anxiety from caregiver or stranger anxiety
What is discriminate/specific attachment
7-12 months
primary attachment to one individual (who offers most interaction and responds to signals) and experience separation anxiety from this person
stranger anxiety
Use familiar adults as a secure base
What is multiple attatchments
1+ years
form secondary attachments with familiar adults
Evaluation of Schaffer (1964) - stage theories
Stage theories - suggest that development occurs in a specific order making it inflexible and is a problem if the stages become normal and families are judged as abnormal if this standard is not met
Evaluation of schaffers stages of attachment - asocial stage
Poor evidence for the asocial stage - as young babies have poor co-ordination and are fairly immobile they display anxiety in hard to observe ways which may not have been noticed and reported back. Babies may be social but because of flawed methods appear to be asocial
Evaluation of Schaffers stages of attachment - population validity
all working class families from one place and in the 1960s may not be applicable for different social groups, countries or time periods
Evaluation of Schaffers stages of attachment - unreliable data
Data collected was from mothers reports, some mothers may be less sensitive to how their infant behave and would not notice little details and not report them
challenges validity of data and stage
Lorenz (1935) imprinting procedure
Took a clutch of Gosling eggs and split them into 2 groups
1 group was left with their natural mother
1 group was placed in an incubator and the first moving thing they saw was Lorenz
He marked the 2 groups then placed them together while both the natural mother and Lorenz were present
Lorenz (1935) imprinting findings
The goslings divided themselves up one group followed their natural mother the other group followed Lorenz
Lorenz’s group showed no recognition of their natural mother
Noted that the process of imprinting was restricted to a definitive period of the young animals lives called the critical period
If a young animal is not exposed to a moving object during the critical period the animal will not imprint
Suggests animals can imprint on a persistently present moving object within its first 2 days
Observed that imprinting to humans does not occur in some animals e.g. curlews will not imprint on a human
What is imprinting
A process similar to attachment as it binds a young animal to a care giver in a special relationship
Lorenz (1935) long lasting effects of imprinting
The process is irreverible and long lasting
One of the gees called Marina slept on Lorenz’s bed every night
Early imprinting had an impact on mating preferences called sexual imprinting, animals (especially birds) will choose to mate with the same kind of object which the imprinted to
Harlow (1959) learning theory contradiction procedure
Created 2 wire mothers, one was wrapped in cloth
Studied 8 infant Rhesus monkeys over 165 days.
4 of the monkeys the fully wire mother had a milk bottle and for 4 of the monkeys the cloth mother had the milk bottle
Measurements were made for how long each monkey spent with the different mothers
Observations of the infants responses when frightened were also made
Harlow (1959) contradiction to learning theory findings
All 8 monkeys spent the majority of their time with the cloth mother (17-18 hours a day) whether or not it had the milk bottle
Those fed from the wire mother only spent a short amount of time with it getting food then returned to the cloth mother
When frightened all the monkeys clung to the cloth mother and when playing with new objects the monkeys often kept one foot on the cloth mother seemingly for reassurance
Suggests infants do not develop attachment to food providers but to the person offering contact comfort
Harlow (1959) contradiction to learning theory long lasting effects
The motherless monkeys (even those with contact comfort) developed abnormally
Socially abnormal - froze or fled when approached by other monkeys
Sexually abnormal - did not show normal mating behaviour and did not cradle their own babies
Also found a critical period
If the motherless monkeys spent time with monkey peers the seemed to recover but only if this happened before they were 3 months
Having only a wire mother for more than 6 months was not able to be recovered from
Evaluation of Lorenz (1935) - research support
a number of other animal studies have demonstrated imprinting e.g. Guiton (1966) demonstrated Leghorn chicks exposed to yellow rubber gloves while being fed in their first few weeks became imprinted on the gloves. Supports the view that animals are not born with a predisposition to imprint on a specific type of object but probably on a moving thing that is present in the critical period. Guiton also found that later the male chicks tried to mate with the gloves which supports sexual imprinting
Evaluation of Lorenz - Imprinting criticism
The accepted view was that imprinting was irreversible. It is now understood that it is more plastic e.g. Guiton (1966) found he could reverse the imprinting in the chicks that were trying to mate with the rubber gloves. If they spent time with their species they were able to engage in normal sexual behaviour.
Evaluation of Harlow (1959) - confounding variables
the 2 wire mothers varied in more ways than just having cloth or not. The 2 heads of the mothers were also different. It may be possible that the monkeys preferred the cloth mother because they preferred the head.
Evaluation of Harlow - generalisation
Humans differ to monkeys at their decisions are governed by conscious decision. However Schaffer and Emerson’s supports that infants were not attached to the food provider
Evaluation of Harlow - ethics
Ethics - This study could not be done with humans and their are questions about whether it should be done with monkeys. The study created lasting emotional harm as the monkeys found it difficult to form relationships with their peers. But it could be justified as the findings have had a significant effects on our understanding of attachment and has helped to better care for humans and primates
Learning theory
All behaviour is learnt rather than inborn. When children are born they are blank slates and their behaviour can be explained in term of their experiences as they learn through classical and operant conditioning
Classical conditioning for learning theory
The unconditioned stimulus (food) produces the innate unconditioned response (pleasure).
During the infants early life the person providing food (neutral stimulus) becomes associated with the UCS (food) and will produce the same response (pleasure). The food provider is now a conditioned stimulus and produces the conditioned response of pleasure
Operant conditioning for learning theory
When the infant is fed the drive for food/hunger is reduced producing feelings of pleasure.
negative reinforcement as it is escaping something unpleasant.
Evaluation of learning theory - Harlow
Contradicted by Harlow (1959) as the monkeys spent more time with the cloth monkey even when it did not provide food
Evaluation of learning theory - alternate explanation
Bowlby’s theory of attachment
Learning theory evaluation - based on animal studies
Skinner and Pavlov
lack the ability to be generalised to humans
Evaluation of learning theory - reductionist
Reduces the complex human behaviour to stimulus and response
Bowlby’s Monotropic attachment theory why attachment forms
Attachment evolved because it serves an important survival function. In the past if an infant was not attached it is less well protected as they would not remain close to an adult.
It is also important that the attachment is two ways to ensure the infants are cared for and survive.
Bowlby’s monotropic theory critical period
babies have an innate drive to become attached. the critical period for attachment is around 3-6 months. Infants that do not have the opportunity to form an attachment during this time seem to have difficulty forming attachments later on
Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment social releasers
Important to ensure that attachment forms from the parent to the baby. Mechanisms such as smiling and having a babyface all elicit caregiving. Innate mechanism to help attachment form
Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment monotropy
Infants have one special emotional bond (the primary attachment relationship). This is often the mother. Infants also form secondary attachments that provide an emotional safety net and are important for healthy psychological and social development
Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment internal working model
An infant has one special attachment and forms a mental representation of this relationship. It gives insight into the caregivers behaviour and allow the infants to influence the caregivers behaviour so a true partner hip can be formed. Also acts as a template for all future relationships as it generates expectations about what intimate loving relationships are like.
Bowlby’s Monotropic theory of attachment continuity hypothesis
Individual who are strongly attached in infancy continue to be socially and emotionally competent whereas those who are not strongly attached have more social and emotional difficulties in childhood and adulthood
Evaluation of Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment - critical period
critical period - there have been studies into children who did not form an attachment in this period. Rutter shows that Bowlby’s claim is true to an extent but although attachments are less likely to form they are not impossible.
Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment evaluation- adaptive
Bowlby suggests attachments develop after 3 months, if this mechanism was for protection it would be very late and in the pat it would be better for infant to become attached immediately, this may be linked to the fact humans are immobile till around 6 months when they begin to crawl which is when attachment is crucial therefor supporting Bowlby.
Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment evaluation - temperament
Infants innate emotional personality (temperament) may explain attachment behaviour. Those with an easy temperament are more likely to become strongly attached as it is easier to interact with them and vice versa
Belsky and Rovine (1987) found infants between 1-3 days old showing difficult temperaments were more likely to have insecure attachments
Bowlby says attachment is due to primary attachment whereas it could be due to temperament
Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment evaluation - alternative explanation
Learning theory
Ainsworth (1971, 1978) the strange situation procedure
observed infants behaviour in a novel environment and under mild stress using a 1 way mirror and recorded what the infant is doing every 15 seconds.
8 episodes each lasts 3 minutes
1. infant in the novel environment, infant plays, parent sits. assessing use of parent as a secure base
2. Stranger enters and talks to parent. Assesses stranger anxiety
3. parent leaves, infant plays, stranger offers comfort if needed. Assesses separation anxiety
4. Parent returns, greets infant, offers comfort if needed, stranger leaves. Assesses reunion behaviour
5. Parent leaves, infant alone. Assesses separation anxiety
6. Stranger enters and offers comfort. Assesses stranger anxiety
7. Parent return, greets infant, offers comfort. Assesses reunion behaviour
Ainsworth (1971,1978) the strange situation secure attachment
high willingness to explore
moderated stranger anxiety
distressed separation anxiety (some easy to soothe)
enthusiastic reunion behaviour
66% of infants were secure
Ainsworth (1971,1978) the strange situation insecure - avoidant attachment
high willingness to explore
low stranger anxiety
indifferent separation anxiety
avoids contact reunion behaviour
22% of infants were insecure-avoidant
Ainsworth (1971,1978) the strange situation insecure-resistant attachment
low willingness to explore
high stranger anxiety
intense distress separation anxiety
seeks and rejects reunion behaviour
12% of infants were insecure-resistant
Secure attachment mothers behaviour
affectionate and sensitive to the baby, understanding what it needs and providing it reasonably quickly
Insecure-avoidant mothers behaviour
appears insensitive to babies needs, ignoring it and showing little affection
Insecure-resistant mothers behaviour
Inconsistent in her affections, sometimes rejecting sometimes affectionate, frequently misunderstanding babies needs
Evaluation of Ainsworth strange situation - 4th attachment type
Main and Soloman analysed over 200 SS videos and proposed insecure disorganised - lack of consistent patterns in social behaviours, dealing with stress and attachment type
Evaluation of the strange situation - temperament hypothesis
Kagan suggests temperament (genetically influenced personality of the child) is more important than attachment, temperament may be a confounding variable meaning SS does not purely measure attachment reducing validity
Evaluation of the strange situation - High reliability
Inter-observer reliability - observers compared measurements to see if they agreed, in SS there was 0.94 agreement when rating exploratory behaviour meaning the observations were reliable
Evaluation of the strange situation - cultural bias
In some countries being avoidant would be good as they are needed to be independent secure being the best attachment is not the same for all cultures
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonberg procedure
meta-analysis of 32 SS studies with almost 2000 mother-infant pairs from 8 countries
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonberg major findings
West Germany - 35% avoidant, 8% resistant, 56% secure
Japan - 27.1% resistant, 5.2% avoidant, 67.7% secure
variation of attachment type within cultures was 1.5x greater than variation between cultures
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonberg conclusions
Secure attachment is most common across all cultures
there is a lot of variation within cultures e.g. 40% secure in 1 US study 90% secure in another
explanation for differences in cultural attachments
Japan - collectivist country, child-rearing places emphasis on close family relationships, mothers rarely leave their child and don’t leave them with strangers, mothers are sensitive to needs
West Germany - individualist culture, child-rearing requires distance between parents and child to have independent non-clingy child who obeys demands not make them
Evaluation of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonberg - research support
Grossman and Grossman did SS in Germany and found significant portion were insecure-avoidant, Takahashi did SS in Japan and found 32% were insecure resistant
Evaluation of Van Ijzedoorn and Kroonenburg - lack of standardisation
as it was a meta-analysis they were not decided the procedure used meaning different procedures may have been used
Evaluation of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenburg - cultural differences
In the SS it is assumed that willingness to explore is a sign of secure attachment how in japan for example dependence would show security so may appear insecure by Western ideals
Evaluation of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenburg - countries not cultures
They compared countries not cultures, within countries there are many sub-cultures with different childrearing practices. Explains why there was so much variation within countries
Caution is needed when using “cultural variation” as the sample may not have been representative of a certain culture
Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation - value of maternal care
just food, safety and warmth was not enough, infants need a warm, intimate and continuous relationship with a mother or permanent mother substitute to ensure normal mental health
Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation - critical period
child who is denied such care because of frequent or prolonged separations may become emotionally disturbed but only if the deprivation occurs before the age of around 2 and 1/2 years and there is not permanent mother substitute
Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation - long term consequences
emotional maladjustment
mental health problems
intellectual damage
Bowlby 44 thieves study procedure
studied 88 emotionally maladjusted children at a child guidance clinic, 44 had been caught stealing other 44 were control group
Bowlby suggested the thieves were affectionless psychopaths which enabled them to be thieves
Bowlby 44 thieves study findings
14/44 thieves were affectionless psychopaths
12/14 were separated from carer for more than 6 months
0/44 non-thieves were affectionless psychopaths
2/44 were separated from carer for more than 6 months
Evaluation of Bowlby’s 44 thieves study - experimenter bias
Bowlby carried out the interviews and was looking to prove his hypothesis
Evaluation of Bowlby’s 44 thieves study - causal relationship
as it was not an experiment there will have been many extraneous and confounding variables and cause and effect cannot be established
Evaluation of Bowlby’s 44 thieves study - external validity
was a real life study so showed the true affect of maternal deprivation in real-life situations
Evaluation of Bowbly’s 44 thieves study - real world application
Before Bowlby’s research children were separated from their parents when they spent time in hospitals and visiting was discouraged or forbidden. Bowlby’s theory made major social change in the way children are cared for in the hospital
Evaluation of Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation - individual differences
seen in his results
not all maternally deprived were affectionless psychopaths
Rutter (2010) effect of institutionalisation procedure
165 Romanian children who spent their early lives in Romanian institutions
111 were adopted by the age of 2
all had been adopted by 4
Rutter (2010) findings
At the time of adoption the orphans were behind in physical, cognitive and social development.
They were smaller lighter and classified as “mentally retarded”
some had caught up to British counterparts by 4
almost all who were adopted before 6 months caught up
large minority have significant deficits (problems with peer relationships and disinhibited attachments)
Effects of institutionalisation
physical underdevelopment
Intellectual under functioning
Disinhibited attachment
Poor parenting
Evaluation of effect of institutionalisation - individual differences
research shows some are not as affected as others meaning it is not possible to conclude that institutionalisation always leads to an inability to form attachments
Evaluation of effect of institutionalisation - real world application
can be applied to improving the lives of children in care, importance of early adoption. Mother used to nurse baby then give it up, by the time baby was adopted sensitive period for attachment may have passed. Now most adopted in first week
Evaluation of the effect of institutionalisation - longitudinal studies
as the studies are over such a long period of time they see how the children changed as they developed. If the studies stopped they may have thought the effects were much worse than the are
Evaluation of effect of institutionalisation - slower development
it may be the effect do disappear with good quality emotional care it just takes time
The last assessment in the study was age 11 and a lower number of children showed disinhibited attachment
The children may just need more time to learn to cope
research implies the effects are permanent which may not be true
influence of early attachment - internal working model
Infants learn about relationships from experience, infant learns what relationships look like and how people behave towards each other
Hazan and shaver internal working model procedure
put a love quiz in the “rocky mountain news” asking about current and previous attachment experiences to identify current and childhood attachment types
analysed 620 responses
Hazan and Shaver internal working model - findings
attachment style similar to strange situation - 56% secure, 25% avoidant, 19% resistant
correlation between attachment type and love experience
Secure - love experience happy, friendly and trusting and more enduring average 10 years
insecure - 5-6 years
behaviours influence by the internal working model
childhood friendships
poor parenting - Harlow
romantic relationships
mental health
evaluation of effect of early attachment - correlation
cause and effect relationship cannot be established
evaluation of effect of early attachment - retrospective classification
When adults recollect information about their childhood it is likely to be flawed. However longitudinal studies also support Hazan and Shaver e.g. Simpson (2007) found those securely attached in childhood were more socially competent as children, closer to their friends at 16 and more emotionally attached to partners in adulthood
Evaluation of influence of early attachment - determinist
research suggests early experience have a fixed effect on later adult relationships however it is much more complex
Evaluation of influence of early attachment - Research support
Fearon and Roisman (2017) concluded early attachment consistently predicts later attachment, emotional well-being and attachment to own children
Attachment to fathers
Much less likely to be a babies first attachment figure compared to mothers
Schaffer and Emerson (1964) role of the father
Majority of babies first became attached to their mothers around 7 months
Only 3% the father was the first attachment figure
However later on 75% were attached to fathers by 18 months
role of the father in development - Grossman (2002)
thought that fathers role is more to do with play and stimulation and less to do with emotional development
Fathers as a primary attachment figure - Field (1978)
suggest that when fathers take on the role of primary care giver they are able to adopt the emotional role more typically associated with mothers
filmed 4 month old babies interacting with mothers and fathers who were primary and secondary attachment figures
primary fathers showed more smiling and interacting than secondary fathers
Evaluation of the role of the fathers - inconsistent findings
some studies are interested in their role as primary attachment figures some secondary and they find different things so not clear what the role of the father
Evaluating the role of the father - role changes
Freeman (2010) found male children are more likely to prefer their father as an attachment figure that female children
Evaluating the role of the father - real world appication
Can be used to offer advice to parents. Mothers may worry about going back to work and fathers may be pressured to focus on work which may not work economically. This research can reassure them as well as lesbian or single mothers assured not having a father does not affect development
Evaluating the role of the father - ethical issues
Claiming children without fathers are no different to those with can be offensive to fathers and may lead to them getting less in legal proceedings
