Research Methods - The Scientific Process Flashcards
Aim
A precise statement about the purpose of the study and what it intends to find out. The aim should include what is being studied and what the study is trying to achieve.
Hypothesis
A specific, testable statement about the expected outcome of a study. Should also be operationalised.
First part of a hypothesis that needs addressing is whether or not the study predicts causation or correlation.
Correlation
The researcher predicts a relationship between the two variables being investigated.
Causation
The researcher predicts a difference in the DV because of manipulation of an IV.
Significant differences
Differences in the DV resulting from manipulation of the IV are known as significant differences if it has been statistically shown using inferential statistics that the differences are highly unlikely to be due to chance.
Null hypothesis
This states that the IV will have no effect on the DV
Alternative hypothesis
This predicts that the IV will have an effect on the DV.
Alternative hypothesis falls in one of two categories
Non-directional hypothesis - This does NOT state the direction of the predicted differences between conditions
Directional hypothesis - This does state the direction of the predicted differences between conditions
How to decide whether to use directional or non-directional
If there is previous research in the field, use directional as the research will enable us to predict which direction the results are likely to go in
If there is no previous research, use non-directional
What to remember when writing a hypothesis
- Is it a test of causation or correlation?
- Is it a null, non-directional or directional hypothesis?
- Is it in the correct tense?
- Have all the variables been included?
- Have all the variables been operationalised?
Pilot studies
Small scale investigations conducted before research.
They are useful because they can help to identify whether there needs to be any modifications in the design of the planned study. They also help determine whether it would be feasible and worthwhile to conduct a full-scale study.
Sampling techniques
- Random
- Systematic
- Stratified
- Opportunity
- Volunteer
Random sampling
- likely to be representative so results can be generalised to target population
- sometimes difficult to get full details of a target population from which to select a sample, and not all members of the target population who are selected will be willing and able to take part, making the sample unrepresentative
Systematic sampling
- Far simpler than random sampling
- Process of selection can interact with a hidden periodic trait in the target population. If the sampling technique coincides with the periodicity of the trait, the sample can become unrepresentative.
Stratified sampling
-All groups in a target population are included so the sample should be representative
- Can be very time consuming as the categories have to be identified and calculated
Opportunity sampling
- Easiest and most practical
- High chance sample will not be representative, sometimes people may feel obliged to take part even when they don’t want to.
Volunteer sampling
- Can be a useful way of finding specific people to take part in particular areas of research
- A certain type of person tends to volunteer for research and this means that there is a high chance that the sample will be unrepresentative
Experimental designs
How the participants are assigned to different conditions.
3 main types :
- independent groups
- repeated measures
- matched pairs
Order effects
When the sequence in which participants take part in conditions influences their performance or behaviour.
Independent groups
Different participants are used in each condition. Participants are usually randomly allocated.
Advantages of independent groups
- order effects will not occur as there are different participants in each condition
- the chance of demand characteristics is reduced as pps do only one condition each and have less chance to guess purpose of study
- the same task/materials can be used in both conditions as pps are always naïve to the task
Disadvantages of independent groups
- more pps are needed for this experimental design
- there is always a chance that the different results between the two conditions are due to participant variables rather than manipulation of the IV
Repeated measures
Each participant is tested in all condition of the experiment
Advantages of repeated measures
- no participant variables
- half as many people are needed compared to an independent groups design
Disadvantages of repeated measures
- order effects may affect the results. One way to avoid this is counterbalancing.
- demand character are more likely to occur as pps are involved in the entire study
- this design takes more time, especially if a time gap between different conditions is required
Counterbalancing
When half the participants do condition A first and condition B second, and the other half do them in the opposite order.
Does not eliminate order effects, but allows them to be distributed evenly across both conditions
Matched pairs
Different pps are used in all of the conditions like with independent groups. Participants in the two groups are matched on characteristics important for that study. Identical twins are often used.
Advantages of matched pairs
- less risk of order effects will not
- less risk of demand characteristics
- participant variables are unlikely as groups have been closely matched
Disadvantages of matched pairs
-twice as many pps required than repeated measures
- matching process is incredibly difficult
- matching process is incredibly time consuming
Participant variables
Characteristics of the pps which may affect the DV. Choosing an appropriate experimental design can help to overcome these extraneous variables.
Environmental variables
Factors in the environment where the experiment is conducted that could affect the DV. Solution is standardisation - making sure that all conditions, materials and instructions are the same for all pps.
Investigator effects
When the person collecting the data has knowledge of what the research aim is and that knowledge affects the data obtained. Observer bias is a type of investigator effect.
Can be overcome by the double blind technique, where neither pps nor investigator know the hypothesis of the study or what condition they’re in.
Standardised scripts should be written to ensure investigator acts in a similar way with all pps.
Demand characteristics
Many features of research studies may enable pps to guess a study’s purpose and what is expected of them. This can lead to the participant:
- trying to please the researcher by giving the ‘right’ results
- trying to annoy the researcher by giving wrong results (screw-you effect)
- acting unnaturally out of nervousness
- acting unnaturally out of social desirability bias
Can be overcome by single blind technique- pps don’t know what hypothesis or condition they’re in.
Ethics - the rules
- informed consent
- protection from harm
- right to withdraw
- confidentiality
- avoid deception
- debriefing
Peer review process
Aims to retain the integrity of psychological research. Involves an independent scrutiny of a research report by other psychologists working in a similar field. These other psychologists check the research report before deciding whether or not it should be published in a psychological journal.
What is considered in a peer review?
Work is considered in terms of its validity, reliability, significance and originality.
There is an assessment of the appropriateness of the methodology and experimental designs used.
Responses to a review
Reviewers can :
- accept the research report as it is
- accept the research report with revisions
- suggest the author makes revisions to the research report and re-submits it
- reject the research report without the possibility of re-submission
Research proposals
Submitted to panel and assessed for merit before research takes place
Final decision on research report
Editors of psychological journals make the final decision whether to accept or reject the report based on the reviewer’s comments/recommendations
Peer review purposes
- to ensure quality and relevance of research and accuracy of findings. Reduces the chances of flawed/unscientific research being published.
- to evaluate research proposals in order to determine whether or not to award research funding
Advantages of peer review
- independent scrutiny increases the probability of errors being identified. Peers are more objective than authors or researchers.
- double blind procedure can be used to researcher and reviewer don’t know who the other is
- involves a specialist psychologist in the field judging work and they will have exceptional knowledge and expertise in order to make the best judgement
Disadvantages of peer review
- it is not always possible to find an appropriate expert to review a proposal or report, therefore poor research might be positively reviewed because reviewer didn’t really understand it
- journals tend to prefer positive results because editors want to increase the standing of their journal
- peer review can be an unfair process where some reviewers have connections with certain universities and therefore favouritism or bias may occur towards researchers depending on their institution
The economy
The state of a country or region in terms of the production and consumption of goods and services and the supply of money
Ways in which psychology affects the economy
Impact on healthcare service
Impact on laws and policies
Impact on government finances
Impact on employment and productivity
Social influence and the economy
Helps us understand how behaviour and attitudes can be changed
Research has been used to encourage healthy behaviours
Reduced pressure on NHS, increased productivity of workforce
Memory and the economy
Cognitive interview has improved amount of accurate information collected from eyewitnesses
Amount spent on wrongful arrests/imprisonment and wasted police time will be reduced
Attachment and the economy
Recent research shows both parents are capable of providing necessary emotional support
More fathers staying home contribute less to the economy but more mothers returning to work leads to more contribution
Gender pay gap may be reduced if parental roles are regarded as more equal
Paternity leave leads to government costs and might lead to lower productivity
Psychopathology and the economy
May lead to improvements in psychological health which could lead to healthier people that take less time off work. Would reduce costs to the economy.
May find better ways of managing people who have mental health issues, improve productivity.
Important scientific research findings may encourage investment from overseas, boosting the economy.
Providing effective treatments may be a financial burden to NHS. New, more effective therapies could be more expensive.
