Memory lessons 1-4

Question 1

STM

Answer 1

Stores and allows recall of information for a period of max 18 - 30s without rehearsal. Very limited capacity.

Question 2

LTM

Answer 2

Stores and enables us to recall information from the more distant past. Unlimited capacity and duration is potentially a lifetime.

Question 3

STM Duration

Answer 3

Peterson and Peterson. 24 Undergraduate students (pps) presented with consonant trigrams. Asked to count backwards in 3s to prevent rehearsal. After intervals incrementing in 3, stop counting and repeat trigram. Repeated using diff trigrams.

Question 4

Peterson and Peterson results

Answer 4

Could remember 90% trigrams after 3s, less than 10% when 18s interval.
Info decays quickly when you can’t rehearse it.

Question 5

Peterson and Peterson evaluation

Answer 5

Strength - lab experiment, tightly controlled, replicability (can be tested to see changes over time)
Weaknesses - low ecological validity, unrealistic
Trigrams for earlier trials could cause confusion or interference.

Question 6

LTM Duration

Answer 6

Bahrick et al
400 americans, 17-74 years remembering classmates
pictures, names and pictures, just names with no picture cue

Question 7

Bahrick results

Answer 7

Even after 48 years, linking names and faces - 70% accuracy. Free recall - 30%

Still able to remember 30-50 years on, LTM can last a lifetime. Cannot immediately access all info in LTM- but when cues are presented, recall is higher, suggests cues are often needed to help retrieval.

Question 8

Bahrick evaluation

Answer 8

Strengths - High external validity- meaningful material. Gives better estimate of ltm duration bc of meaningful material.
Weakness- Natural experiment, less control of IV, likely some names had been rehearsed. Confounding variable.
Very specific info, not useful in explaining if other types of info can also last a lifetime.

Question 9

Capacity of STM Jacobs 1887

Answer 9

Serial digit span technique. Read out 4 digits and asked to repeat immediately. More added until couldn’t recall accurately.
On average about 9 digits and 7 letters were correctly recalled. Capacity increased with age during childhood. May be bc of increase in brain capacity or strategies to improve digit span.

Question 10

Jacobs evaluation 1887

Answer 10

Lacks ecological validity
Previous sequences may have confused them, confounding variable.
So long ago, cannot be sure extraneous variables were controlled. e.g. distractions and pps IQ .
However, has been repeated and same results found suggest validity.

Question 11

STM Capacity Miller

Answer 11

Reviewed experiments and concluded it has a capacity of 7 +/- 2. Said chunking can increase capacity. Cowan argued Miller may have overestimated, capacity is about 4 chunks.

Question 12

3 Types of Coding

Answer 12

Acoustic - storing info in terms of the way it sounds
Semantic- coding info in terms of meaning
Visual- storing info in terms of the way it looks

Question 13

Coding STM and LTM

Answer 13

STM is mainly acoustic. LTM is mainly semantic.

Question 14

Baddeley

Answer 14

Pps were shown a sequence of 5 words under one of four conditions and immediately had to write them down in order.
Conditions: acoustically similar/dissimilar, semantically similar/ dissimilar

Question 15

Baddeley results

Answer 15

When tested immediately (STM) participants were least accurate with acoustically similar (got them muddled).
When tested 20 minutes later (LTM) participants were least accurate with semantically similar words.

Question 16

Baddeley conclusion

Answer 16

Info is normally acoustically coded in STM and semantically in LTM so we’re more likely to make mistakes. However info can be stored in STM and LTM in other forms, e.g. visually.

Question 17

Baddeley evaluation

Answer 17

Low ecological validity, meaningless words. Therefore doesn’t tell us much about coding memories in everyday life. Results have limited application to real life.
However, does identify clear difference in coding of two memory stores. (STM info - acoustic, LTM info - semantic)

Question 18

MSM model

Answer 18

Multi-store model was first described by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin.
They argue that our memory involves a flow of information through a series of stages in a fixed linear sequence. There are 3 unitary stores and each has its own capacity, coding and duration.

Question 19

MSM Flow (diagram)

Answer 19

Environment input detected by sense organs, enters sensory register.
If attention is paid, enters STM. If rehearsed, enters LTM.
Recalled from LTM through retrieval.
Rehearsal loop and recall for STM.

Question 20

Sensory register

Answer 20

Stores sensory register from environment for short period of time. Five sensory stores : iconic (visual), echoic (auditory), haptic (physical), gustatory (taste), olfactory (smell).
Duration - 250 ms, capacity- very large/unlimited, coding- modality specific (depends on sense)

Question 21

Evidence for sensory register method

Answer 21

Sperling
Pps shown a grid with 3 rows of 4 letters for 50 ms. Had to immediately recall either whole grid or randomly chosen row indicated by tone (high, medium, or low) played straight after grid was shown.

Question 22

Sperling results

Answer 22

When asked to recall a particular row, could recall 3 out of 4 items on average no matter which row.
Pps didn’t know which row would be selected but still managed to recall 3/4 suggesting almost whole grid was in SR. Capacity is very large, duration is very short.

Question 23

Sperling Evaluation

Answer 23

Lab experiment, highly scientific. Variables controlled, high replicability.

Lacks ecological validity.

Question 24

MSM Strengths

Answer 24

1. Can explain primacy and recency effects
2. Case studies support that STM and LTM are separate stores.
3. Brain-scanning techniques have also supported the idea that LTM and STM are separate stores.

Question 25

Weaknesses of MSM

Answer 25

1. Idea that all info needs to be rehearsed to move to LTM does not explain flashbulb memories.
2. Evidence that suggests STM and LTM are not single stores (can damage just part of each)
3. Most supporting studies lack ecological validity.

Question 26

Types of LTM

Answer 26

Episodic- concerned with ‘episodes’ e.g. an event or group of events occurring
Semantic- concerned with knowledge about the world
Procedural- Concerned with skills

Question 27

Episodic LTM

Answer 27

Memory that gives individuals an autobiographical record of personal experiences.
Thought that it helps distinguish between real and imaginative events.

Question 28

Influence on episodic LTM

Answer 28

Strength of episodic memories is influenced by
-emotions present at the time memory is coded
- the degree of processing of information during coding (higher=easier to recall)

Question 29

Semantic LTM

Answer 29

Contains all knowledge individual has learned.
Strength is dependent upon degree of processing occurring during coding. Semantic seem to be better sustained over time than episodic.
Semantic are linked to episodic as new knowledge tends to be learned from new experiences.

Question 30

Differences between the three types of LTMs

Answer 30

One difference is that both episodic and semantic memories are conscious whereas procedural memory is unconscious.

Another difference is that different areas of the brain store them. Semantic and episodic tend to be stored in hippocampus, procedural are stored in cerebellum and motor cortex.
Another difference is that with semantic, we may not recall when we learned them whereas with episodic, they’re stored with reference to time and place.

Question 31

Strength of types of LTM (case studies)

Answer 31

One strength is case studies. H.M and Clive Wearing both had severely impaired episodic memories but could learn new skills (so procedural were intact). Both also had relatively intact semantic LTM. Clive could still read music and play piano. This proves that LTM has different stores bc one can be damaged and others could stay unaffected.

Question 32

Strength of types of LTM ( brain scans )

Answer 32

Another strength is that there is evidence from brain scans that show different LTMs are stored in different parts of the brain. Tulving (1989) did an experiment where he asked participants to do different memory tasks which required procedural and semantic memories while having PET scans. Semantic showed more activation in frontal and temporal lobes. Episodic showed prefrontal cortex.

Question 33

Strength of types of LTM ( real life applications )

Answer 33

Types of LTMs can be used in real life applications- being able to identify different LTM stores has positive applications. Knowing episodic is a distinct store means it can be targeted in people with specific episodic memory difficulties. Belleville (2006)

Question 34

Weakness of types of LTM

Answer 34

There is evidence of gender differences in LTMs suggesting that research cannot be generalised to all population.
Herlitz et al assessed LTM abilities in 1000 Swedish participants and found that females consistently performed better on tasks requiring episodic LTM, although no differences in semantic LTM ability. Further supports idea that semantic and episodic memories are different.
Has been suggested that women may have stronger episodic memories due to higher verbal abilities.
This questions idea of generalisation on the different types of LTMs.

Question 35

WMM by Baddeley and Hitch (1974)

Answer 35

Argued STM described by Atkinson and Shiffrin was too simple.
Argue that STM is not a unitary store - it has sub stores and each is responsible for processing different types of information. Every component of WMM is argued to have a limited capacity and the components are relatively independent of each other. Also argue that STM also processes information so tasks can be carried out.

Question 36

Components of WMM

Answer 36

Central executive
Phonological loop
Episodic buffer
Visuo-spatial sketch pad

Question 37

Central executive

Answer 37

Has overall control.
Processes information in all sensory forms.
Directs attention to important tasks, monitors incoming info and decides which slave systems are needed to complete them.
Involved in problem solving/ decision making.
Limited capacity- cannot make many decisions at the same time.

Question 38

Phonological loop

Answer 38

Slave system
Temporarily stores and rehearses word based information so is active whenever you read, listen or speak words. Stores this info in the order in which it arrives.

Phonological store - acts as inner ear, holds info in speech-based form. Spoken words enter directly, written must be converted into articulately (spoken) code first.
Articulatory process - allows maintenance rehearsal of word based info- acts like an ‘inner voice’. Circulates info round and round.

Question 39

Visuo- spatial sketch pad (inner eye)

Answer 39

Mental workplace for storing and manipulating limited amount of visual and spatial info for brief period of time. Likely that it plays an important role in helping us keep track of where we are in relation to other objects as we move through our environment.
Limited capacity and duration.
Divided into:
Visual cache: stores visual data
Inner scribe : remembers arrangement of objects in space.

Question 40

Episodic buffer

Answer 40

Added in 2000 as it was recognised that WMM doesn’t allow for communication between slave systems nor explains how the LTM communicates with the different subsystems.
Acts as a ‘backup’ store which communicates with both long term memory and integrates the visual, spatial and verbal info processed by other stores. Also records order in which events (episodes) happen.
Under control of central executive. Linked to LTM and sends info to LTM. However, has its own storages and processes.

Question 41

Coding and capacity of each store

Answer 41

Central executive - Limited capacity, modality free coding
Phonological loop - two seconds worth of what you can say, acoustic coding
Visuo-spatial sketch pad - three-four objects , visual coding
Episodic buffer - about 4 chunks, stores visual, spatial and verbal information, integrating it together

Question 42

Baddeley and Hitch (1976)

Answer 42

To investigate if pps can use different parts of working memory at the same time.
Pps were asked to perform two tasks at the same time (dual task technique) - a digit span task which required them to repeat a list of numbers, and a verbal reasoning task which required them to answer true or false to various questions.

Question 43

Baddeley and Hitch (1976)

Answer 43

Results: Number of digits increased, pps took longer to answer reasoning questions but not much longer. Didn’t make any more errors in verbal reasoning tasks as number of digits increased.

Conclusion: Verbal reasoning task used central executive, digit span task used phonological loop.

Question 44

Strengths of WMM (dual tasking)

Answer 44

1. Can account for dual-tasking, the fact we can carry out two tasks at once if one is word-based and one is visual. This is because we can use the phonological loop to do the verbal task and the visuo-spatial sketch pad to do the visual task. If both tasks are verbal/visual, ability is impaired.
   Dual-task studies provide evidence for existence of multiple components within our STM, support idea of separate VSS and phonological loop.

Question 45

Strengths of WMM (case studies)

Answer 45

Patient K.F was injured in a motorcycle accident. After, KF could recall stored info from his LTM but had issues with his STM. He was able to remember visual images, but unable to remember sounds (acoustic info). This suggests there are at least two components within STM, one for visual and other for acoustic info. This research supports WMM and idea of two slave systems.

Question 46

Strengths of WMM