Research Methods : Methodologies

Question 1

Independent variable

Answer 1

The variable the researcher manipulates in order to determine its effect on the dependent variable.
To provide a standard to compare experimental conditions with, there may be a control condition where the IV is not manipulated at all.

Question 2

The dependent variable

Answer 2

This is the variable that is being measured. The IV and DV should be operationalised.
Operationalisation is defining the variables in such a way as to make them measurable.

Question 3

Extraneous variables

Answer 3

These are any variables other than the IV that could affect the DV

Question 4

Confounding Variables

Answer 4

These are any variables other than the IV that have affected the DV

Question 5

Lab experiments

Answer 5

Carried out in a controlled environment, allowing researcher to exert a high level of control over IV and eliminate any EV.
Pps are randomly allocated to a condition. This means neither experimenter nor participant decides which condition the pps is placed in.
An unpredictable method (such as flipping coin/drawing names) is used to decide.

Question 6

Advantages of Lab Experiments

Answer 6

-High level of control means it is easy to control for any EV and stop them becoming CV
- Can establish cause and effect relationship between IV and DV as researcher can manipulate IV
- Well controlled lab experiment can be easily replicated by other researchers to see if similar results can be obtained. If findings are similar in replicated, results are not due to chance or CV

Question 7

Disadvantages of lab studies

Answer 7

• Strong chance of demand characteristics
• By establishing high level of control over IV and EV, experimental situation can lack mundane realism. This means study lacks ecological validity.

Question 8

Mundane realism

Answer 8

The extent to which an experiment reflects real life

Question 9

Ecological validity

Answer 9

Ability to generalise findings of research to the real world

Question 10

Field experiments

Answer 10

Carried out in the real world. IV is manipulated by researcher to see effect on DV.

Question 11

Advantages of field experiments

Answer 11

• More mundane realism and ecological validity than in a laboratory
• Because researcher can manipulate IV, cause and effect relationship can be established between IV and DV
• Less chance of demand characteristics because in a field experiment pps may not even be aware they are taking part in research

Question 12

Disadvantages of field experiments

Answer 12

• There is much less control over EV and so the effect on the DV may not be caused by the IV but by these EV. This means the research is not valid.
• There is less control over the sample.
• Field experiments may be far more difficult to replicate.

Question 13

Natural experiments

Answer 13

The researcher takes advantage of a naturally occurring IV to see its effect on the DV.

Question 14

Advantages of natural experiments

Answer 14

• High level of mundane realism and ecological validity
• Very useful when it is impossible or unethical to manipulate the IV/sample in a laboratory experiment or field experiment

Question 15

Disadvantages of natural experiments

Answer 15

• Less control over EV
• Difficult to replicate
• Far more difficult to determine cause and effect

Question 16

Quasi experiments

Answer 16

Contain a naturally occurring IV. However, in a quasi experiment the naturally occurring IV is a difference between people that already exists (i.e. gender or age). The researcher examines the effect of this variable on the DV.

Question 17

Observations

Answer 17

An observation is when a researcher watches or listens to participants engaging in the behaviour that is being studied.

Question 18

Types of observations

Answer 18

Non-participant observation
Participant observation
Covert observation
Overt observation

Question 19

Non-participant observation

Answer 19

This is when the researcher does not get directly involved with the interactions of the participants

Question 20

Participant observation

Answer 20

This is when the researcher is directly involved with the interactions of the participants

Question 21

Covert observation

Answer 21

The psychologist goes undercover and does not reveal their true identity, they may even give himself or herself a new identity. The group does not know that they are being observed.

Question 22

Overt observation

Answer 22

The researcher watches and records the behaviour of a group that knows it is being observed by a psychologist.

Question 23

Naturalistic observation

Answer 23

A researcher observes participants in their own environment and there is no deliberate manipulation of the independent variable (IV).

Question 24

Advantages of naturalistic observations

Answer 24

• Pps are usually unaware that they are being observed (covert observation) so there is a reduced chance of observer effects.
• High mundane realism and ecological validity
• Useful when the deliberate manipulation of variables would be impractical or unethical

Question 25

Disadvantages of naturalistic observations

Answer 25

- Impossible to have any control over EV - Problematic to try to determine cause and effect - Risk of observer bias

Question 26

Observer effects

Answer 26

Occur when pps change their behaviour because they know they are being observed, so the results are not valid.

Question 27

Observer bias

Answer 27

When the observers know the aims of the study, or the hypotheses, and this knowledge influences their observations.

Question 28

Controlled observation

Answer 28

A researcher observes pps in a controlled environment and this allows for manipulation of the IV.

Question 29

Advantages of a controlled observation

Answer 29

- Cause and effect can be determined - EV can be controlled for

Question 30

Disadvantages of a controlled observation

Answer 30

- Lower mundane realism and ecological validity - Observer effects could occur as pps usually know they are being observed (overt observation) - There is a risk of observer bias

Question 31

Operationalised behavioural categories

Answer 31

The specific and observable behaviours to be recorded during an observation. These behavioural categories represent the more general construct under investigation.

Question 32

Behavioural categories:

Answer 32

- allow observers to tally observations into pre-arranged groupings - provide a clear focus for the researcher - enable the proposal of a testable hypothesis - allow for a more objective/scientific data recording - provide data that is easier to quantify/analyse - should result in greater reliability

Question 33

Observer bias

Answer 33

Occurs when the observer knows the aims of the study, or the hypotheses, and this knowledge influences their observations.

Question 34

How to avoid observer bias Inter-observer reliability

Answer 34

Use two observers who agree beforehand on their interpretation of the behavioural categories. Each observer then observes participants at the same time but records observations independently. Their recordings will then be correlated using an appropriate statistical test to ascertain level of agreement. If they agree, study has inter-observer reliability.

Question 35

How to avoid observer bias Intra-observer reliability

Answer 35

This is when an observation is video recorded so that it can be watched several times.

Question 36

Event sampling

Answer 36

Recording every time a certain behaviour (or event) occurs in a target individual or individuals. For example, counting how many times a person smiles.

Question 37

Time sampling

Answer 37

Recording all behaviours within a given time frame. For example, noting what a student is doing in a lesson every 30 seconds.

Question 38

Self-report techniques

Answer 38

Self-report is when participants provide details of their own feelings, thoughts and/or behaviour to the researcher.

Question 39

Interviews

Answer 39

Involve researchers asking questions in face-to-face situations. -Structured -Unstructured -Semi-structured

Question 40

Structured interviews

Answer 40

All participants are asked the same questions in the same order. This provides quantitative data which is data that can be counted or expressed numerically.

Question 41

Unstructured interview

Answer 41

An informal in-depth conversational exchange between the interviewer and interviewee. This provides qualitative data, non-numerical data that uses words to give a description of what people think/feel.

Question 42

Semi-structured interview

Answer 42

This type of interview combines a mixture of structured and unstructured techniques. (Quantitative and qualitative data)

Question 43

Advantages of interviews

Answer 43

- Complicated or sensitive issues are best dealt with in an interview - If participants misunderstand a question this can be clarified

Question 44

Disadvantages of interviews

Answer 44

- Risk of interviewer effects. This can be unintentional and may even be a result of the interviewer's appearance, manner or gender. - Risk of social desirability bias. This would mean the data lacks validity. - Training is needed for interviewers and the process can be time consuming and expensive.

Question 45

Interviewer effects

Answer 45

When the interviewer may inadvertently affect respondent's answers

Question 46

Social desirability bias

Answer 46

When people lie to present themselves in a positive light (particularly when discussing issues that may be socially sensitive).

Question 47

Recording the interview

Answer 47

- Interviewer could take written notes but likely to interfere with their listening skills. If researcher doesn't write something down, interviewee may feel like what they've said isn't valuable. - Interviews may be audio recorded or video recorded.

Question 48

The effect of true interviewer

Answer 48

One strength of interview over questionnaire is that presence of an interviewer who is interested in respondent's answers may increase amount of info provided. Interviewers need to be aware of their nonverbal communication and listening skills.

Question 49

Questionnaires

Answer 49

Pps are given a written set of questions and instructions about how to record their answers. Mostly focus on individual's behaviour, opinions, beliefs and attitudes.

Question 50

Closed questions

Answer 50

Require pps to choose from fixed responses. (Quantitative data) Researchers are able to collate and display info collected easily. Closed questions make it easy to compare specific response to questions the researchers wanted answered, can be sure there will be certain info bc they have restricted options to include that info.

Question 51

Open questions

Answer 51

Allow pps to answer in their own words (qualitative data). Allow respondents to interpret the question as they wish and develop their response with detail or depth - lots of info received. Allow researchers to pursue a line of enquiry that they may not have predicted but which comes to light from a response.

Question 52

Advantages of questionnaires

Answer 52

- Possible to collect a large amount of data relatively quickly and conveniently - Easy to score/ collate when the questions are closed. - Standardised so it is easy to replicate

Question 53

Disadvantages of questionnaires

Answer 53

- Pps may misunderstand the questions and the researcher is not there to clarify - Can have a low response rate - Can have biased sample as they are only suitable for people who can read and are willing and able to spend the time on them. Certain types of people would be more willing to fill in questionnaires so the sample may not be representative of the target population.

Question 54

Writing good questions for a questionnaire

Answer 54

- Clarity : questions shouldn't be ambiguous - Bias - Analysis : Need to be written so that they're easy to analyse

Question 55

Writing good questionnaires

Answer 55

- Filler questions : distracts respondent from main purpose of questionnaire, reducing risk of demand characteristics - Sequence of questions : Best to start with easy questions and save those that could make people anxious/defensive for later - Sampling technique ; Technique used could cause biased sample - Pilot study : Questions could be tested on small group, can then be refined in response to any difficulties.