Research Methods : Methodologies Flashcards
Independent variable
The variable the researcher manipulates in order to determine its effect on the dependent variable.
To provide a standard to compare experimental conditions with, there may be a control condition where the IV is not manipulated at all.
The dependent variable
This is the variable that is being measured. The IV and DV should be operationalised.
Operationalisation is defining the variables in such a way as to make them measurable.
Extraneous variables
These are any variables other than the IV that could affect the DV
Confounding Variables
These are any variables other than the IV that have affected the DV
Lab experiments
Carried out in a controlled environment, allowing researcher to exert a high level of control over IV and eliminate any EV.
Pps are randomly allocated to a condition. This means neither experimenter nor participant decides which condition the pps is placed in.
An unpredictable method (such as flipping coin/drawing names) is used to decide.
Advantages of Lab Experiments
-High level of control means it is easy to control for any EV and stop them becoming CV
- Can establish cause and effect relationship between IV and DV as researcher can manipulate IV
- Well controlled lab experiment can be easily replicated by other researchers to see if similar results can be obtained. If findings are similar in replicated, results are not due to chance or CV
Disadvantages of lab studies
- Strong chance of demand characteristics
- By establishing high level of control over IV and EV, experimental situation can lack mundane realism. This means study lacks ecological validity.
Mundane realism
The extent to which an experiment reflects real life
Ecological validity
Ability to generalise findings of research to the real world
Field experiments
Carried out in the real world. IV is manipulated by researcher to see effect on DV.
Advantages of field experiments
- More mundane realism and ecological validity than in a laboratory
- Because researcher can manipulate IV, cause and effect relationship can be established between IV and DV
- Less chance of demand characteristics because in a field experiment pps may not even be aware they are taking part in research
Disadvantages of field experiments
- There is much less control over EV and so the effect on the DV may not be caused by the IV but by these EV. This means the research is not valid.
- There is less control over the sample.
- Field experiments may be far more difficult to replicate.
Natural experiments
The researcher takes advantage of a naturally occurring IV to see its effect on the DV.
Advantages of natural experiments
- High level of mundane realism and ecological validity
- Very useful when it is impossible or unethical to manipulate the IV/sample in a laboratory experiment or field experiment
Disadvantages of natural experiments
- Less control over EV
- Difficult to replicate
- Far more difficult to determine cause and effect
Quasi experiments
Contain a naturally occurring IV. However, in a quasi experiment the naturally occurring IV is a difference between people that already exists (i.e. gender or age). The researcher examines the effect of this variable on the DV.
Observations
An observation is when a researcher watches or listens to participants engaging in the behaviour that is being studied.
Types of observations
Non-participant observation
Participant observation
Covert observation
Overt observation
Non-participant observation
This is when the researcher does not get directly involved with the interactions of the participants
Participant observation
This is when the researcher is directly involved with the interactions of the participants
Covert observation
The psychologist goes undercover and does not reveal their true identity, they may even give himself or herself a new identity. The group does not know that they are being observed.
Overt observation
The researcher watches and records the behaviour of a group that knows it is being observed by a psychologist.
Naturalistic observation
A researcher observes participants in their own environment and there is no deliberate manipulation of the independent variable (IV).
Advantages of naturalistic observations
- Pps are usually unaware that they are being observed (covert observation) so there is a reduced chance of observer effects.
- High mundane realism and ecological validity
- Useful when the deliberate manipulation of variables would be impractical or unethical
Disadvantages of naturalistic observations
- Impossible to have any control over EV
- Problematic to try to determine cause and effect
- Risk of observer bias
Observer effects
Occur when pps change their behaviour because they know they are being observed, so the results are not valid.
Observer bias
When the observers know the aims of the study, or the hypotheses, and this knowledge influences their observations.
Controlled observation
A researcher observes pps in a controlled environment and this allows for manipulation of the IV.
Advantages of a controlled observation
- Cause and effect can be determined
- EV can be controlled for
Disadvantages of a controlled observation
- Lower mundane realism and ecological validity
- Observer effects could occur as pps usually know they are being observed (overt observation)
- There is a risk of observer bias
Operationalised behavioural categories
The specific and observable behaviours to be recorded during an observation. These behavioural categories represent the more general construct under investigation.
Behavioural categories:
- allow observers to tally observations into pre-arranged groupings
- provide a clear focus for the researcher
- enable the proposal of a testable hypothesis
- allow for a more objective/scientific data recording
- provide data that is easier to quantify/analyse
- should result in greater reliability
Observer bias
Occurs when the observer knows the aims of the study, or the hypotheses, and this knowledge influences their observations.
How to avoid observer bias
Inter-observer reliability
Use two observers who agree beforehand on their interpretation of the behavioural categories. Each observer then observes participants at the same time but records observations independently. Their recordings will then be correlated using an appropriate statistical test to ascertain level of agreement. If they agree, study has inter-observer reliability.
How to avoid observer bias
Intra-observer reliability
This is when an observation is video recorded so that it can be watched several times.
Event sampling
Recording every time a certain behaviour (or event) occurs in a target individual or individuals. For example, counting how many times a person smiles.
Time sampling
Recording all behaviours within a given time frame. For example, noting what a student is doing in a lesson every 30 seconds.
Self-report techniques
Self-report is when participants provide details of their own feelings, thoughts and/or behaviour to the researcher.
Interviews
Involve researchers asking questions in face-to-face situations.
-Structured
-Unstructured
-Semi-structured
Structured interviews
All participants are asked the same questions in the same order. This provides quantitative data which is data that can be counted or expressed numerically.
Unstructured interview
An informal in-depth conversational exchange between the interviewer and interviewee. This provides qualitative data, non-numerical data that uses words to give a description of what people think/feel.
Semi-structured interview
This type of interview combines a mixture of structured and unstructured techniques. (Quantitative and qualitative data)
Advantages of interviews
- Complicated or sensitive issues are best dealt with in an interview
- If participants misunderstand a question this can be clarified
Disadvantages of interviews
- Risk of interviewer effects. This can be unintentional and may even be a result of the interviewer’s appearance, manner or gender.
- Risk of social desirability bias. This would mean the data lacks validity.
- Training is needed for interviewers and the process can be time consuming and expensive.
Interviewer effects
When the interviewer may inadvertently affect respondent’s answers
Social desirability bias
When people lie to present themselves in a positive light (particularly when discussing issues that may be socially sensitive).
Recording the interview
- Interviewer could take written notes but likely to interfere with their listening skills. If researcher doesn’t write something down, interviewee may feel like what they’ve said isn’t valuable.
- Interviews may be audio recorded or video recorded.
The effect of true interviewer
One strength of interview over questionnaire is that presence of an interviewer who is interested in respondent’s answers may increase amount of info provided.
Interviewers need to be aware of their nonverbal communication and listening skills.
Questionnaires
Pps are given a written set of questions and instructions about how to record their answers. Mostly focus on individual’s behaviour, opinions, beliefs and attitudes.
Closed questions
Require pps to choose from fixed responses. (Quantitative data)
Researchers are able to collate and display info collected easily. Closed questions make it easy to compare specific response to questions the researchers wanted answered, can be sure there will be certain info bc they have restricted options to include that info.
Open questions
Allow pps to answer in their own words (qualitative data).
Allow respondents to interpret the question as they wish and develop their response with detail or depth - lots of info received.
Allow researchers to pursue a line of enquiry that they may not have predicted but which comes to light from a response.
Advantages of questionnaires
- Possible to collect a large amount of data relatively quickly and conveniently
- Easy to score/ collate when the questions are closed.
- Standardised so it is easy to replicate
Disadvantages of questionnaires
- Pps may misunderstand the questions and the researcher is not there to clarify
- Can have a low response rate
- Can have biased sample as they are only suitable for people who can read and are willing and able to spend the time on them. Certain types of people would be more willing to fill in questionnaires so the sample may not be representative of the target population.
Writing good questions for a questionnaire
- Clarity : questions shouldn’t be ambiguous
- Bias
- Analysis : Need to be written so that they’re easy to analyse
Writing good questionnaires
- Filler questions : distracts respondent from main purpose of questionnaire, reducing risk of demand characteristics
- Sequence of questions : Best to start with easy questions and save those that could make people anxious/defensive for later
- Sampling technique ; Technique used could cause biased sample
- Pilot study : Questions could be tested on small group, can then be refined in response to any difficulties.
