Memory lessons 5- 9

Question 1

interference theory

Answer 1

Forgetting occurs in LTM because two memories are in conflict. This might result in forgetting or distorting of one memory or both.
More likely to happen if theyre similar.
Two types

Question 2

Proactive interference

Answer 2

Old memory interferes/disrupts with recall of new one

Question 3

Retroactive interference

Answer 3

New memory interferes/ disrupts with recall of old one

Question 4

Interference is worse when memories are similar because

Answer 4

1. In PI, previously stored information makes new info more difficult to store
2. In RI, new info overwrites previous memories which are similar

Question 5

Interference research support

Answer 5

McGeoch and McDonald 1931, to see if interference had impact on forgetting

1. six groups of pps had to learn lists of words to 100% accuracy
2. five groups had to learn a new list (interference task)
   different lists varying in similarity to first
   synonyms/antonyms/unrelated/nonsense syllables/3 dig numbers
3. All pps were required to recall original list

Question 6

Results of McGeoch and McDonald

Answer 6

Control group recalled most
Participants given an interference task : did best with numbers, worst with synonyms

Can be explained by interference , shows interference is most likely to occur when two pieces of information are similar. Study supports this notion.

Question 7

Strengths of interference

Answer 7

Supported by many controlled lab studies which have shown both types of interference lead to info in LTM being forgotten. E.g. McGeoch and McDonald. Good control over extraneous variables.

Another strength is realistic studies. Baddeley and Hitch investigates rugby players who 1. played all matches or 2. missed some due to injury. Asked to recall names of teams they played against. Players who played most games forgot proportionally more games than those who played less. Time since last match did not affect accuracy. Retroactive interference.

Schmidt et al sent questionnaires and a map of molenburg neighbourhood to pps ages 11-79 years who went to school there. Also asked some other questions. Found positive association between number of times pps moved and number of street names forgotten. Retroactive Interference.

Question 8

Weaknesses of interference

Answer 8

1. Most supporting evidence is from lab studies which lack ecological validity.
2. In lab studies, the time period between learning and recall tends to be short. IRL there tends to be much longer gaps between when we learn new information. Therefore supporting research may lack validity, and so role of interference in forgetting shown by lab studies may be exaggerated.
3. Research has shown that the effects of interference can be overcome using cues. Tucking and Psotka gave participants 5 lists of 24 words. Recall accuracy decreased as lists went on due to interference. When given cues (reminded category), accuracy improved.

Question 9

Retrieval failure due to absence of cues

Answer 9

This theory of forgetting argues that the information is often stored in the LTM but cannot be retrieved due to lack of cues. When info is first placed in memory, associated cues are stored at the same time. Often these are then needed to trigger the memory. Forgetting is due to lack of accessibility not availability.

Question 10

Encoding specificity principle

Answer 10

ESP suggests that cues will help retrieval if same cues are present at coding and retrieval. closer retrieval cue is to coding cue, more effective cue is at triggering memory.

Question 11

2 Types of cues that support ESP :

Answer 11

• Cues which are linked meaningfully to info
• Cues which are not linked meaningfully to info but may relate to context in which learning occurs.

Question 12

Research supporting role of ESP in recall

Answer 12

Tucking and Pearlstone got participants to recall 48 words that belonged in 1 of 12 categories. As each word was presented, it was preceded by category,
If cue was present at recall, recall was 60%.
If it wasn’t, recall was 40%.
Retrieval of info stored in the LTM is far better when there are cues to trigger memory. Supports ESP.

Question 13

Context dependent retrieval failure

Answer 13

Environment during recall is different from environment you were in when learning.

Question 14

Abernathy (supports context dependent)

Answer 14

Arranged for a group of students to be tested prior to a certain course beginning. They were then tested weekly but arranged in 4 different groups.
Same teaching room, same instructor. Same room, diff instructor. Diff room, same instructor. Diff room, diff instructor.
Those tested by same room and instructor performed best. Presumably bc they acted as memory cues.
Also found that ‘able’ students were least affected by changes and less ‘able’ students were most affected by context.

Question 15

Godden and Baddeley

Answer 15

18 Divers were asked to learn lists of 36 unrelated words of 2/3 syllables and asked to recall. Each diver had to participate in 4 conditions.
Learn on beach, recall on beach.
Learn on beach, recall underwater.
Learn underwater, recall underwater.
Learn underwater, recall on beach.

Recall was better when environment matched for both learning and recall.

Question 16

Evaluation of context dependent retrieval failure.

Answer 16

1. Baddeley argues such context effects may not be very strong irl. Argues contexts must be very different before effect is seen. Therefore may not commonly explain forgetting irl.
2. However, Abernathys study did prove that normal real life contexts such as classrooms was an important cue in remembering info. Supports irl application.
3. May depend on type of memory being tested. When Godden and Baddeley repeated their underwater experiment but pps were just asked if they recognised words read to them, no context dependent effect, performance was same despite conditions. Failure due to absence of (context) cues only apply to recall rather than recognise.

Question 17

State dependent retrieval failure

Answer 17

Occurs when your mood or physiological state during recall is different from the mood you were in when you were learning.

Question 18

Evidence for state dependent
Carter and Cassaday

Answer 18

They gave pps anti-histamines - drugs for controlling their hay fever (making them feel slightly drowsy). Pps had to learn lists of words and passages of information and then recall. There were 4 groups. In 2 of them, internal state during learning and recall matched. In other two, mismatched. (only taken drug in one situation).
It was found that pps recalled best when internal state matched. However, when there was a mismatch, performance on memory test was worse.
Therefore when internal cues are absent, retrieval failure is more likely.

Question 19

Overall evaluation of the retrieval failure explanation of forgetting
Strengths

Answer 19

1. There is a range of research (both controlled lab experiments and real life situations) that shows retrieval failure due to absence of cues is a major explanation for forgetting. (Both kinds)
2. This concept has real life applications. Suggests remembering the context or your internal state in which you encoded the memory may improve recall as shown in studies. Both these principles are used in the Cognitive Interview. Witnesses are asked to recall context of scene such as how they were feeling or what the weather was like. This suggests this research is successful irl.

Question 20

Overall evaluation of the retrieval failure explanation of forgetting
Weaknesses

Answer 20

1. Retrieval cues do not always work since our learning is related to a lot more than just cues. Also, many research studies tend to focus on word lists or passages which lacks ecological validity as we are not just learners at school but learning throughout our lifetime.
   Thus, most studies lack realism and do not give an overall picture of this explanation.
2. It is actually very difficult to test the ESP since we don’t know what cues are meaningful to individuals and how they’re encoded during learning.

Question 21

EWT

Answer 21

Eye witness testimony refers to an account given by people of an event they have witnessed.
Can be defined as ** ‘the ability of people to remember the detail of events, such as accidents and crimes, which they themselves have observed’ **

Question 22

Misleading Info

Answer 22

Has been suggested that accuracy of EWT can be affected by misleading information including leading questions and post-events discussions.

Question 23

Leading questions

Answer 23

A leading question is a question that suggests to the witness what answer is desired, or leads him/her to give a certain answer because of the way it was phrased.
Loiftus and Palmer shows this.

Question 24

Loftus and Palmer 1974

Answer 24

45 students were shown a video of a car accident. Then asked a question about speed of the car on impact. One group was asked ‘how fast were the cars going when they hit each other’. Other pps were asked the same question but replacing ‘hit’ with smashed, bumped, collided or contacted.

Verb used had a significant effect on estimated speed. Contact lead to lowest estimate (mean of 31.8 mph) and smashed lead to highest (mean of 40.5).

Some verbs used were leading, encouraging pps to believe that cars were going faster (smashed) or slower (contacted) than they acc were.

Question 25

Why do leading questions affect EWT?
Response-bias

Answer 25

The response-bias explanation suggests that the wording of the question has no real effect on the pps memories but just influences how they decide to answer.

Question 26

Why do leading questions affect EWT?
Substitution explanation

Answer 26

To further investigate, Loftus and Palmer conducted a second experiment to see if wording actually changed pps memory of the film clip. Pps who originally heard ‘smashed’ were more likely to report seeing broken glass (there was none) than those who heard ‘hit’. Critical verb altered their memories. This is known as the ** substitution explanation **.

Further supported by Loftus and Zanni. Pps were shown a video of a car accident and then asked questions. When asked if they had seen ‘a’ broken headlight, 7% said yes. When asked if they had seen ‘the’ broken headlight, 17% said yes. There wasn’t one. It was concluded that the ‘the’ was leading as it implied there was one, therefore altered memory, supporting substitution bias.

Question 27

Post event discussion

Answer 27

Argued to affect accuracy of EWT due to :
1. Memory contamination
2. Memory conformity

Question 28

Memory contamination

Answer 28

This is when co-witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other and their testimonies then become altered or distorted as they mix (mis)information from other witnesses into their own memories.

Question 29

Memory conformity

Answer 29

Witnesses often go along with eachother either because they want social approval or because they believe other witnesses are right, and they are wrong. However, their actual memory of the event remains unchanged.

Question 30

Research support for effects of post-event discussion on EWT accuracy

Gabbert et al

Answer 30

60 Students from uni of Aberdeen and 60 adults from local community watched a video of a girl stealing money from a wallet. Pps were either tested individually (control group) or in pairs (co-witness group). Pps in co witness group were told they had watched the same video, but had seen different perspectives of the same crime and only one person had seen the girl stealing. Pps in co witness group discussed crime tg. All pps then completed a questionnaire, testing their memory of the event.

71% of witnesses in co witness group recalled info they hasn’t seen compared to 0 in the control group and 60% said girl was guilty even though they didn’t see her commit a crime.

Question 31

Strengths of research into the effects of misleading info on EWT

Answer 31

1. Mostly well controlled lab studies. Extraneous variables controlled. E.g. weather didn’t affect vision in Loftus and Palmer. Makes conclusions easier.
2. Easily replicated. Loftus and Palmer/ Loftus and Zanni, carried out under controlled conditions and standardised procedure. We can be more confident that IV affects DV.
3. Important applications irl, police must be careful in how they phrase questions to avoid substitution.
4. Suggests where possible, co-witnesses should be prevented from discussing their testimony. Gabbert et al. Bodner also found impact of post event discussion is reduced is pps are warned about it.

Question 32

Weaknesses of lab studies into EWT

Answer 32

1. Normally watching a video of an event is very different to watching a real event in real time.
2. Watching a staged event on a video does not cause any anxiety. Studies have shown small amount of anxiety increase accuracy.
3. Irl, EWT may have serious consequences. This isn’t true in a research study so pps are less motivated to be accurate.
4. Risk of demand characteristics

Question 33

Yerkes Dodson Law

Answer 33

The relationship between emotional arousal and performance looks like an inverted U. This theory states that performance will increase with stress but only to a certain point, where it decreases drastically.

Question 34

Deffenbacher 1983

Answer 34

Applied the Yerkes Dodson Law to show effects of anxiety on EWT. He found that 10 of these studies had results that linked higher arousal levels to increased EWT testimony and 11 showed the opposite that lower anxiety produced lower recall anxiety.
The law therefore states that memory recall becomes more accurate when the optimal level of anxiety is reached. This is the point of maximum accuracy. If eyewitness experiences any more stress, recall suffers decline.

Question 35

Study supporting Yerkes Dodson Law

Answer 35

Loftus and Burns 1982
Pps were allocated to one of two conditions.
1. Watched a violent short film where a boy was shot in the head
2. Watched a non-violent short film of a crime

Pps were less accurate in recall when they saw the violent short film than those who was he’d the non-violent movie.
Demonstrates role of anxiety in EWT accuracy as shows anxiety provoking situations result in less accurate recall.

Question 36

An example of high anxiety
The weapon focus effect

Answer 36

High anxiety can be created through weapon focus effect. Crime maybe committed and the eye witness will be watching the event. Perpetrator may pull out a weapon, suddenly anxiety levels of observer will rise as focus shifts from crime to weapon.

Question 37

Johnson and Scott 1976
Weapon focus effect

Answer 37

Pps sat outside a lab and heard one of two situations from inside.
1. a friendly convo followed by a man emerging carrying a pen with grease on his hands (low anxiety situation)
2. An argument, with smashing glass and overturned furniture followed by man emerging with blood stained paper knife (high anxiety)

All pps had to identify man on basis of 50 photos. Witnesses were 49% accurate identifying man with pen, compared to 33% with knife. Shows anxiety affected recall as high anxiety shifted focus to weapon rather than face of man.

Question 38

Example ion high anxiety having a positive effect on accuracy of EWT

Answer 38

Alternative argument says high anxiety/arousal creates more enduring and accurate memories.
Christianson and Hubinette foudnevidence of enhanced recall when they questioned 58 real witnesses (either victims or bystanders) to a bank robbery in Sweden. All witnesses showed generally good memories (75% or more accurate recall). Most anxious (victims) had best recall. Suggests high anxiety enhanced accurate recall.

Question 39

Evaluation of anxiety as factor affecting EWT

Answer 39

1. Weapon focus may not be caused by anxiety (related to surprise or unusualness rather than anxiety)
2. Field studies sometimes lack control, confounding variables. Victims may have been nearest incident so saw more clearly. Post event discussion or reading afterwards can affect recall.
3. Ethical issues with studies, may cause psychological harm
4. Yerkes Dodson Law explanation is too simplistic
5. Individual differences (anxiety and accuracy can differ from person to person)

Question 40

The cognitive interview

Answer 40

Originally developed by Geiselman et al in 1984. It aims to increase the accuracy of witness’ recall of events by providing them with cues to help with retrieval.

Question 41

Issues of the standard interview

Answer 41

Use of lots of brief, direct and closed questions.
Witnesses can often be interrupted and not allowed to talk freely.
Use of leading questions is an issue.

Question 42

Four principles of the cognitive interview

Answer 42

1. Context reinstatement or mental reinstatement of original context (cues to trigger recall)
2. Report everything (interruption is avoided, memories are interconnected so recollection of one item can lead to lots)
3. Recall in changed order (prevents schemas and lying, triggers extra memories)
4. Recall from changed perspective (disrupts schemas)

Question 43

Enhanced Cognitive Interview
Fisher 1987

Answer 43

Includes the following principles :
1. Should actively listen
2. Ask open ended questions
3. Pause after each response
4. Avoid interruption
5. Encourage use of imagery
6. Adapt their language to suit the witness
7. Avoid any judgemental comments
8. Minimise distractions

Question 44

Strengths of the cognitive interview
Gieselman et al 1985

Answer 44

1. Research suggests cognitive interview is effective
   Gieselman et al showed pps videos of a staged crime and tested different groups with cognitive interview, standard police interview and an interview under hypnosis. He found that the cognitive interview generated more information.

Question 45

Gieselman et al 1986

Answer 45

In a staged situation, an intruder wearing a blue rucksack enters and steals a slide projector from a classroom. 2 days later pps are questioned using either a standard interview or cognitive interview procedure. Early in questioning, a misleading question was asked ‘was the guy with the green backpack nervous?)
Later they were asked what colour the backpack was

Pps in cognitive interview condition were less likely to recall the rucksack as being green than those in standard interview condition

Cognitive interview reduces effect of leading questions

Question 46

Weaknesses of the cognitive interview

Answer 46

1. The CI can be very time consuming, interviewer may not always have the time. Time taken might affect accuracy.
2. Requires that interviewer receives a lot of training.
3. Many studies test in labs- ecological validity. Staged crime is diff to real crime. (anxiety)
4. Has been found less successful in improving recall with children. Found that it leads to children under 6 reporting events less accurately. Is however effective with 8 years and above.