Research Methods - Scientific Methods

Question 1

Aim

Answer 1

An aim is a precise statement about the purpose of the study and what it intends to find out. The aim should include what is being studied and what the study is trying to achieve.

Question 2

Hypothesis

Answer 2

A hypothesis is a specific, testable statement about the expected
outcome of a study. The hypothesis should also be operationalised.

Question 3

Parts of a hypothesis

Answer 3

The first part of a hypothesis that needs addressing is whether or not
the study predicts causation or correlation.

Correlation: The researcher predicts a relationship between two
variables being investigated.

Causation: The researcher predicts a difference in the Dependent Variable (DV) because of the manipulation of an Independent Variable (IV).

Differences in the DV resulting from manipulation of the IV are known as significant differences if it has been statistically shown using inferential statistics that the differences are highly unlikely to be due to chance.

Question 4

Types of hypothesis

Answer 4

Null Hypothesis = This states that the IV will have no effect on the DV.

Alternative Hypothesis = This predicts that the IV will have an effect on the DV.
The alternative hypothesis falls into one of two categories.

Non-Directional Hypothesis = This DOES NOT state the direction of the predicted differences between conditions.

Directional Hypothesis = This DOES state the direction of the predicted difference between conditions.

Question 5

How to know whether to use a directional or non-directional hypothesis

Answer 5

The decision as to whether to use a directional hypothesis or non- directional hypothesis is based on whether there is previous research in the field. If there is, we use a directional hypothesis, if not, we use a non-directional hypothesis. This is because previous research will enable us to predict which direction the results are likely to go in.

Question 6

Pilot studies

Answer 6

Pilot studies are small-scale investigations conducted before research. They are useful because they can help to identify whether there needs to be any modifications in the design of the planned study. They also help to determine whether it would be feasible and worthwhile to conduct a full- scale study.

Question 7

Target population

Answer 7

target population is used to describe the group who researchers are studying and want to generalise their results to.

Question 8

Random sampling

Answer 8

Random sampling is when every member of the target population has the same chance of being selected. The easiest way to do this is to place all names from the target population in a hat and draw out the sample required.

Question 9

Advantages and disadvantages of random sampling

Answer 9

Advantages
The sample is likely to be representative and therefore results can be
generalised to the target population.

Disadvantages
It is sometimes difficult to get full details of a target population from which to select a sample. Additionally, not all members of the target population who are selected to take part will be available or willing to take part, making the sample unrepresentative.

Time consuming with larger sample

Question 10

Systematic sampling

Answer 10

Systematic sampling is a sampling technique where participants are
selected by taking every Nth person from a list.

Question 11

Advantages and disadvantages of systematic sampling

Answer 11

Advantages
Systematic sampling is far simpler than random sampling.

Disadvantages
The process of selection can interact with a hidden periodic trait within the target population. If the sampling technique coincides with the periodicity of the trait, the sampling technique will no longer be representative.

Question 12

Stratified sampling

Answer 12

Stratified sampling involves classifying the target population into categories and then randomly choosing a sample that consists of participants from each category in the same proportions as they appear in the target population.

Question 13

Advantages and disadvantages of stratified sampling

Answer 13

Advantages
The strength of stratified sampling is that all groups within a target population are included, therefore the sample should be representative of the target population.

Disadvantages
Stratified sampling can be very time consuming as the categories have to be identified and calculated. If you do not have details of all the people in your target population you would struggle to conduct a stratified sample.

Question 14

Opportunity sampling

Answer 14

Opportunity sampling involves selecting participants who are readily
available and willing to take part.

Question 15

Advantages and disadvantages of opportunity sampling

Answer 15

Advantages
This is the easiest and most practical method of ensuring large samples.

Disadvantages
There is a high chance that the sample will not be representative of the target population. Sometimes people feel obliged to take part in research even when they do not really want to, this is unethical.

Question 16

Volunteer sampling

Answer 16

Volunteer sampling involves people self-selecting to participate in a study. The researcher will usually advertise for people to take part in their research.

Question 17

Advantages and disadvantages of volunteer sampling

Answer 17

Advantages
This can be a useful way of finding specific people to take part in particular areas of research.

Disadvantages
A certain type of person (people who are more confident/helpful/curious) tends to volunteer for research and this means that there is a very high chance that the sample obtained will be unrepresentative (volunteer bias).

Question 18

Experimental design

Answer 18

The experimental design of a study is how the participants are assigned to different conditions. There are three main types of experimental designs, independent groups, repeated measures and matched pairs.

Question 19

Independent groups

Answer 19

In the independent groups design different participants are used in each of the conditions, therefore each group of participants is independent from one another. Participants are usually randomly allocated to each condition to balance out any participant variables.

Question 20

Advantages of independent groups

Answer 20

1. Order effects will not occur as there are different participants in each condition. Order effects are when the sequence in which participants take part in conditions influences their performance or behaviour.
2. The chance of demand characteristics is reduced as participants do only one condition each and so have less chance to guess the purpose of the study.
3. The same task/materials can be used in both conditions as participants are always naïve to the task.

Question 21

Disadvantages of independent groups

Answer 21

1. More participants are needed for this experimental design.
2. There is always a chance that the different results between the two conditions are due to participant variables rather than manipulation of the independent variable (IV).

Question 22

Repeated measures

Answer 22

In the repeated measures design each participant is tested in all
conditions of the experiment.

Question 23

Repeated measures advantages

Answer 23

1. As the same people are measured in all conditions there are no participant variables between the conditions.
2. Half as many participants are needed compared to an independent groups design.

Question 24

Disadvantages of repeated measures

Answer 24

1. Order effects may affect the results. One way to avoid this is counterbalancing, this is when half the participants do condition A first and condition B second and the other half of the participants do condition B first and condition A second. Counterbalancing does not eliminate order effects, which will be present because there are two separate tasks to be completed by each person. However, counterbalancing controls the impact of order effects (practice, fatigue or boredom) and allows order effects to be distributed evenly across both conditions.
2. Demand characteristics are more likely to occur as participants are involved in the entire study.
3. This experimental design takes more time, especially if a time gap between different conditions is required.

Question 25

Matches pairs design

Answer 25

In the matched pairs design the different participants are used in all of the conditions, just as with the independent groups design. However, participants in the two groups are matched on characteristics important for that study, such as age, gender, level of education etc. Identical twins are often used in matched pairs designs.

Question 26

Advantages of matches pairs design

Answer 26

1. There is less risk of order effects.
2. There is less risk of demand characteristics.
3. Participant variables are unlikely as the groups have been closely matched.

Question 27

Disadvantages of matched pairs design

Answer 27

1. Twice as many participants are required compared with a repeated measures design.
2. The matching process is incredibly difficult; even two closely matched individuals have different levels of motivation and fatigue at any given time.
3. The matching process in incredibly time consuming.

Question 28

Extraneous variables

Answer 28

In order to ensure that a study has validity, extraneous variables must be controlled for to prevent them from becoming confounding variables.

Question 29

Participant variables

Answer 29

These are characteristics of the participants which may affect the dependent variable (DV) (e.g. intelligence, age, gender, personality etc.). Choosing an appropriate experimental design can help to try and overcome these types of extraneous variables. Matched pairs and repeated measures can help to avoid participant variables. However, repeated measures can lead to order effects, so counterbalancing should be used to avoid this. Random allocation of participants to conditions (e.g. by drawing names out of a hat) when using independent groups should also ensure that groups are not biased. However, random allocation is not possible for a quasi-experiment.

Question 30

Environmental variables

Answer 30

These are factors in the environment where the experiment is conducted that could affect the DV (e.g. temperature, time of day, lighting, noise etc.). The answer to this is standardisation (i.e. making sure that all the conditions, materials, and instructions are the same for all participants).

Question 31

Investigator effects

Answer 31

This is when the person collecting the data has knowledge of what the research aim is and that knowledge affects the data obtained. Observer bias is a type of investigator effect. Investigator effects can be overcome by the double blind technique. This is when neither the participants nor the investigator know the hypothesis of the study or what condition the participant is in.

Investigators may inadvertently influence the results of their research. Certain physical characteristics of the investigator, such as age, gender and ethnicity can influence the behaviour of participants. Standardised scripts should be written to ensure that the investigator acts in a similar way with all participants

Question 32

Demand characteristics

Answer 32

One common extraneous variable is demand characteristics. There are many features of research studies that may enable participants to guess a study’s purpose and what is expected of them. This can lead to the participant trying to please the researcher by giving the ‘right’ results, trying to annoy the researcher by giving the wrong results (the screw- you-effect), acting unnaturally out of nervousness, or acting unnaturally out of social desirability bias. Observer effects and interviewer effects are types of demand characteristics.

Demand characteristics can be overcome by the single blind technique. This involves making sure participants do not know what the hypothesis is or what condition they are in. This is more difficult to accomplish when using a repeated measures design.

Question 33

Ethics

Answer 33

High-quality research involves good ethical practice and ethical issues must be fully considered before research is conducted. In addition to formal ethical guidelines, most research institutions (such as universities) have ethical committees which meet to consider the ethics of research studies before they commence. The British Psychological Society (BPS) publishes a code of ethics

Question 34

BPs code of ethics (go over handout)

Answer 34

Question 35

Peer review

Answer 35

The purpose of peer review is to ensure the quality and relevance of research, (e.g. methodology, data analysis etc.), to ensure accuracy of findings, and to evaluate proposed designs (in terms of aims, quality and value of the research) for research funding. Peer review prevents the dissemination of irrelevant findings, unwarranted claims, unacceptable interpretations, personal views and deliberate fraud.

Question 36

Evaluation of peer review (3p,2n)

Answer 36

+ Independent scrutiny increases the probability of errors being identified as authors and researchers are less objective about their own work.

+ The double blind procedure can be used so the researcher who conducted the study is kept anonymous, and the researcher also does not know who will peer review their work.

+ Peer review involves a specialist psychologist in the field judging the work, and they will have exceptional knowledge and expertise in order to make the best judgement.

• Journals tend to prefer positive results because editors want to increase the standing of their journal. This results in a bias in published research which leads to a misperception of the facts.
• Peer review can be an unfair process whereby some reviewers have connections with certain universities and therefore favouritism or bias might occur towards researchers depending on their institution.

Question 37

Ways in which psychology affects the economy

Answer 37

 Impact on healthcare service
 Impact on laws and policies
 Impact on government finances
 Impact on employment and productivity

Question 38

Economy - social influence

Answer 38

Social influence research has been used to encourage people to engage in more healthy behaviours, such as eating more healthily. The resulting change of eating more healthily means that people should be healthier in general. The economic implication for this would be reduced pressure on NHS resources and people taking less time of work sick, improving productivity.

Question 39

Economy - memory

Answer 39

The cognitive interview was developed based on psychological research into the way in which memory works. It has hugely improved the amount of accurate information collected from eyewitnesses. The implication for the economy is that the amount spent on wrongful arrests/imprisonment and wasted police time will be vastly reduced.

Question 40

Economy - attachment

Answer 40

Attachment research has come a considerable way since Bowlby asserted that a child can only ever form a secure attachment and lasting monotropic bond with its mother. At the time Bowlby was writing childcare was seen to be the sole responsibility of the mother, preventing women from being able to work

More recent research has questioned Bowlby and has shown the importance of the father. Both parents are equally capable of providing the emotional support necessary for healthy psychological development. It is now normal for households to have flexible working arrangements. Some mothers who earn more go to work and the father stays at home, other couples share the child care evenly. This means that modern parents are better equipped to maximize their income and contribute more effectively to the economy.

Question 41

Economy - mental health

Answer 41

Absence from work costs the economy £15 billion a year and a third of all absences are caused by mild to moderate mental health disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and stress

Evidence based research on effective drug therapies has been essential in reducing the cost of mental illness to the economy and returning people to work. Psychological research findings into psychopathology may lead to improvements in psychological health/treatment programmes which could mean that people manage their health better and take less time off work. This would reduce costs to the economy

Psychological research findings may lead to better ways of managing people who are prone to mental health issues whilst they are at work which could improve their individual productivity, again boosting the economy overall.

Cutting-edge’ scientific research findings into treatments for mental health issues carried out in UK may encourage investment from overseas companies into this country which could boost the economy

However, providing effective treatments might be a significant financial burden to an NHS service already under huge financial strain. Research might discover that new treatments are more effective than older therapies, but these new therapies could be more expensive