Relationships

Question 1

Evolutionary explanations of partner preferences (AO1)

Answer 1

• partner preferences are driven by sexual selection. This means that both males and females choose partners in order to maximise their chances of reproductive success. Individuals with traits that maximise reproductive success (e.g. strength, height, aggression, wide hips etc.) are more likely to survive and pass on the genes responsible for their success.
• Males have gametes (sperm cells), which are able to reproduce quickly with little energy expenditure. Female gametes (eggs or ova) are much less plentiful and require far more energy to produce. This difference (anisogamy) means that males and females use distinct strategies to choose a partner.

Question 2

Intra-sexual selection (AO1)

Answer 2

Intra-sexual selection is where members of one sex (usually male) compete
with one another for access to the other sex. This leads to male-female
dimorphism, which is accentuation of secondary sexual characteristics in those
with greater reproductive fitness.
Anisogamy suggests that a male’s best evolutionary strategy is to have as many partners as possible. Males must compete with other males to present themselves as the most attractive mate to fertile female partners.
Males might engage in mate guarding where they guard their female partner to prevent them mating with anyone else. Males are very fearful of having to raise another man’s child, this is called cuckoldry.

Question 3

Inter-sexual selection

Answer 3

Inter-sexual selection is where members of one sex (usually female) choose from available prospective mates (usually males) according to attractiveness.
Anisogamy suggests that a women’s best evolutionary strategy is to be selective when choosing a partner. Females will tend to seek a male who displays characteristics of physical health, high status, and resources. Thus the male partner is able to protect them and provide for their children.

Before this was related to muscular strength but in modern society it’s related to occupation and wealth

Question 4

Evolutionary explanations of partner preferences (AO3, positives)

Answer 4

• Buss (1989) conducted a survey of over 10,000 adults in 33 countries and found that females reported valuing resource-based characteristics (such as occupation) whilst men valued good looks and preferred younger partners.
• Clark and Hatfield (1989) conducted a now infamous study where male and female psychology students were asked to approach fellow students of Florida State University (of the opposite sex) and ask them for one of three things; to go on a date, to go back to their apartment, or to go to bed with them. About 50% of both men and women agreed to the date, but whilst 69% of men agreed to visit the apartment and 75% agreed to go to bed with them, only 6% of women agreed to go to the apartment and 0% accepted the more intimate offer.

Question 5

Evolutionary explanations of partner preferences (negative AO3)

Answer 5

• The evolutionary approach is deterministic suggesting that we have little free-will in partner choice. However, everyday experience tells us we do have
  some control over our partner preferences.
• Evolutionary theory makes little attempt to explain other types of relationships, e.g. non-heterosexual relationships, and cultural variations in relationships which exist across the world, e.g. arranged marriages.
• evolutionary approaches to mate preferences are socially sensitive (promote traditional sexist views on what natural male and female behaviours are). Women now more career oriented and independent thus won’t look for resourceful partners. Also, contraception being available means evolutionary pressures less relevant

Question 6

Self- disclosure (AO1)

Answer 6

Self disclosure is the revealing of personal information, such as thoughts, feelings and experiences to another person.

Proposed by Altman and Taylor (1973), this theory claims that by gradually revealing emotions and experiences to their partner, couples gain a greater understanding of each other and display trust. Therefore, self-disclosure will increase attraction.

As trust builds, depth and breadth of social disclosure will increase. It gradually increases , if too much is disclosed attraction is lost. People expect same level of self-disclosure (reciprocal self-disclosure)

Question 7

Self-disclosure AO3 (3p, 2n)

Answer 7

• Research conducted by Altman and Taylor (1973) supports the theory of self- disclosure. They found that self-disclosure on the first date is inappropriate and did not increase attraction levels. The person who was self-disclosing was seen as maladjusted and not very likeable.
• Tal-Or (2015) conducted research which agrees with the fundamental concept of self-disclosure being a gradual process that can affect attraction for romantic relationships. Analysis of reality TV shows like Big Brother revealed that viewers did not like contestants who self-disclosed early on.
• 2010 by Kito, research evidence to support the idea of self-disclosure across different cultures. Kito investigated Japanese and American students in different types of relationships, and found that self-disclosure was high for Japanese and American students in romantic relationships that were heterosexual.
• Sprecher (2013) found research evidence that the level of self-disclosure received is the best predictor of liking and loving, rather than the amount of self-disclosure given. This goes against the idea of reciprocal self-disclosure.
• It seems unlikely that attraction to a potential partner is based on self- disclosure alone. Self-disclosure might be an important element, but other factors are also needed in order to increase attraction, such as physical attraction, similarity of attitudes and complementarity of needs.

Question 8

Physical attractiveness (AO1)

Answer 8

• Physical attractiveness affects attraction in romantic relationships. Men place a great deal of importance on physical attractiveness when choosing a female partner in the short-term and the long-term. Research has shown that physical attractiveness is also very important for females when choosing a male partner, especially in the short-term

Question 9

Halo effect (AO1)

Answer 9

The halo effect is when the general impression of a person is incorrectly formed from one characteristic alone (e.g. physical attractiveness). Physically attractive people are often seen as more sociable, optimistic, successful and trustworthy. People tend to behave positively towards people who are physically attractive and this creates a self-fulfilling prophecy where the physically attractive person behaves even more positively because of the positive attention they receive.

Question 10

Halo effect AO3 (1p,1n)

Answer 10

• Palmer and Peterson (2012) found that physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable than unattractive people. The halo effect was so powerful that it persisted even when participants found out that the physically attractive person had no expertise in politics.

-Towhey (1979) asked male and female participants to rate how much they liked an individual based on a photograph. Participants also completed a MACHO scale which measured sexist attitudes and behaviour. It was found that participants who scored highly on the MACHO scale were more influenced by physical attractiveness. Influence of physical attractiveness moderated by other factors (personality)

Question 11

Matching hypothesis (AO1)

Answer 11

• When initiating romantic relationships, individuals seek partners that have the same social desirability as themselves. Physical attractiveness becomes the major determining factor as it is an accessible way for each person to rate the other person as a potential partner before forming a relationship. Most people would prefer to form a relationship with someone who is physically attractive but in order to not be rejected, many people will approach others who are of a similar level of attractiveness to themselves.

Question 12

Matching hypothesis AO3 (1p,2n)

Answer 12

• Fangold (1988) found supportive evidence for the matching hypothesis by
  carrying out a meta-analysis of 17 studies using real-life couples. He established
  a strong positive correlation between the partners’ ratings of physical
  attractiveness, just as predicted by the matching hypothesis.
• Walster (1966) invited 752 first-year students at the University of
  Minnesota to attend a dance party. They were randomly matched to a partner;
  however, when students were picking up their tickets, they were secretly
  judged by a panel in terms of physical attractiveness. 6 months after they were asked to rate their partner on looks, and contrary to matching hypothesis they rated their partner highly regardless of their own attractiveness
• complex matching, whereby a very attractive person forms a relationship with an unattractive person. Relationships may form because the physically attractive person has other factors to make up for physical attractiveness like money or social class

Question 13

Filter theory (AO1)

Answer 13

Kerchoff and David (1962) proposed we use filtering to reduce the field of available partners down to a field of desirable partners. When we meet a potential partner we engage in three levels of filtering; social demography, similarity in attitude, and complementarity of needs.

From the outset we screen out people based on age, sex, education, social background etc. We are more attracted to people from similar backgrounds to our own.

Then we choose people who have similar attitudes to our own (similarity in attitude). In the longer term, we choose people who complement our own traits (complementarity of needs

Question 14

Filter theory AO3 positive (2)

Answer 14

• Research conducted by Taylor (2010) found evidence to support filter theory. He found that 85% of Americans who got married in 2008 had married someone from their own ethnic group, supporting the social demography part of filter theory.
• Research conducted by Hoyle (1993) supports the filter theory when looking at the importance of attitude similarity and sharing common values for

attraction. Hoyle found that perceived attitude similarity can predict attraction more strongly than actual attitude similarity. Tidwell tested this hypothesis during a speed dating event whereby participants had to make quick decisions about attraction. He measured actual and perceived similarity of attitudes using a questionnaire and found that perceived similarity predicted romantic liking more than actual similarity.

Question 15

Filter theory AO3 (negative 3)

Answer 15

• Levinger (1970) conducted research using 330 couples and found no evidence that similarity of attitudes or complementarit
• Filter theory has been criticised because it suggests that people are attracted to each other because they have similar social demography. Anderson (2003) found from his longitudinal study of cohabiting partners that they became more similar in terms of their attitudes and emotional responses over time which increased attraction. At the start of the relationship, their attitudes were not so similar. This is called emotional convergence.
• Research using online dating has shown a lack of support for filter theory in that it might not be an accurate way to see how relationships progress and form. The internet has meant that there is a reduction in social demographic variables when we meet someone, and it is now easier to meet people who live far away, or who have a different ethnicity, social class and background

Question 16

Social exchange theory (AO1)

Answer 16

• This is an economic theory of romantic relationships and is based on the idea that relationships are, “like a business” whereby we monitor the rewards (fun, attention, esteem, etc.) and the costs (time, emotional strain, etc.). We all want the maximum rewards from a relationship and the minimum costs.
• The theory assumes that those who offer rewards are attractive and those who are perceived to involve great costs are less attractive. Relationships that are mutually beneficial will succeed whereas relationships that are imbalanced will fail.
• We compare our present relationship to previous relationships we have had (comparison level). We compare our present partner with people around us who we could potentially have a relationship with (comparison level for alternatives). We look around for a “better deal” if our current relationship is not satisfactory.

Question 17

Social exchange theory AO3 (positive,3)

Answer 17

• Gottman (1992) found evidence that supports the social exchange theory. He found that individuals in unsuccessful marriages frequently report a lack of positive behaviour exchanges with their partner, and an excess of negative exchanges. In successful marriages where the relationship is happy, the ratio or positive to negative exchanges is 5:1, but in unsuccessful marriages the ratio is 1:1.
• Integrated couples therapy (Jacobson, 2000) helps partners to break negative patterns of behaviours and to decrease negative exchanges, whilst increasing positive exchanges. 66% of couples reported significant improvements in their relationship after receiving this form of therapy.
• Different people perceive rewards and costs differently so this theory can account for individual differences in attraction.

Question 18

Social exchange theory AO3 (3n)

Answer 18

• Moghaddam (1998) has criticised the social exchange theory, as it is more applicable to individualistic cultures than collectivist cultures. The perceived costs and rewards of relationships might be very different from one culture to the next. Family values and compatibility might be more important rewards in collectivist cultures. In individualist cultures, rewards might be viewed as a partner buying expensive presents.
• Critics of this theory disagree with the idea that people spend a great deal of time monitoring their relationship in terms of rewards and costs. They argue that people only monitor rewards and costs once the relationship becomes dissatisfying. Only look at comparison levels when already dissatisfied
• Violent relationships continue out of fear, even if there are little rewards and many costs

Question 19

Equity theory AO1

Answer 19

• Equity theory is an economic model of relationships based on the idea of fairness for each partner. It emphasises the need for each partner to experience a balance between their costs/effort and their benefits/rewards.
• If people over-benefit in their relationship and receive more rewards than their partner they might feel guilt or pity. If people under-benefit in their relationship and receive less rewards than their partner, they might feel angry or sad.
• An imbalance of rewards can be tolerated as long as both parties accept the situation; then the relationship will continue.

An equitable relationship has a fair ratio of rewards and costs for each individual.

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Question 20

Equity theory AO3 (2p)

Answer 20

• DeMaris (2007) studied 1500 couples as part of the US National Survey of Families and Households. He found that if women were under-benefitting to a high degree, then there was a high risk of divorce occurring. Shows how important equity is
• Brosnan (2003) found that female monkeys became angry if they were denied a prize (grapes) for playing a game with a researcher, especially if they saw another monkey who had not played the game receive the grapes instead. Ideas of equity rooted in our ancient origins

Question 21

Equity theory (AO3)

Answer 21

• Equity theory is more applicable to individualistic cultures rather than collectivist cultures. In individualistic cultures people might be more concerned with equal rewards and costs in order for a relationship to be successful. However, in collectivist cultures, extended family networks and family values might be more important when maintaining a relationship.
• Buunk (1996) found no association between equity in a relationship and the future quality and maintenance of a relationship. Therefore just because a relationship is equal and fair in terms of rewards and costs; it does not mean that the relationship will progress. People have free will
• Mills and Clark (1982) criticised equity theory. They said that it is not possible to assess equity in loving relationships, as many of the rewards and costs are emotional/psychological and cannot be easily quantified or measured. If we measure rewards and costs then it could diminish the quality of love in the relationship which could be damaging.

Question 22

Investment model (AO1)

Answer 22

• Rusbult developed/extended social exchange theory by proposing the investment model. Rusbult saw commitment as a key factor in sustaining a relationship. Commitment depends on satisfaction, comparison with alternatives and investment.
• Satisfaction is determined by available alternatives, better alternatives equals less satisfaction. Investment acts as a deterrent to leaving a relationship. Intrinsic investment refers to the resources put into the relationship directly (e.g. emotion, effort etc.) and extrinsic investment refers to resources arising out of the relationship (e.g. children, mutual friends, possessions bought together etc.).

Question 23

Investment model AO3 (3p)

Answer 23

• Van Lange (1997) supports Rusbult’s investment model. He studied students from Taiwan and from the Netherlands and found evidence that high commitment levels in a relationship were related to high satisfaction, low quality of alternatives and high investment size.
• The investment model is very useful because it can help explain infidelity. This might occur if a person’s current relationship has low satisfaction and there is a high quality of alternative. Both of these factors would lessen the commitment levels and the present relationship is likely to end.
• explains why people stay in abusive relationships, satisfaction is low but no alternatives and investment is already high (have children together)

Question 24

Investment model AO3 (2n)

Answer 24

• Investment model has been criticised because it is very difficult to measure the factors of commitment, satisfaction, investment and quality of alternatives. Rusbult made a investment model scale because of this but research conducted by Rusbult was also self report based, social desirability bias
• Lin (1995) criticises investment model because it does not take into account gender differences that might exist when looking at relationships. Lin (1995) found that females tend to report higher satisfaction, poorer quality of alternatives, greater investment and stronger commitment in relationships compared to males.

Question 25

Duck’s phase model AO1

Answer 25

1. Intra-psychic Processes - This is characterised by the dissatisfied partner privately thinking about their relationship and brooding about the problems they have identified. They feel that they are under-benefitting from the relationship. They might feel depressed and withdraw from social interactions with their partner.
2. Dyadic Processes - The dissatisfied partner privately communicates with their partner about the fact that they are dissatisfied with the relationship. Both partners might think carefully about investments they have in the relationships e.g. house, children, joint possessions etc. There could be reconciliation if the partner accepts the validity of the dissatisfied partner’s views and promises to change their behaviour or makes agreements to sort out issues. May go to therapy
3. Social Processes - If there is a break up, it is made public to friends and family which means that the problem is harder to deny or ignore. Advice and support are given from people outside the relationship and alliances are made. This can involve criticising former partners e.g. “I never really liked him anyway” and scape-
4. Grave Dressing Processes - As the relationship dies and breaks down, there is the need to mourn and justify our actions. We need to create an account of what the relationship was like and why it broke down. Ex- partners begin their post relationship lives and begin to publicise accounts of how the relationship broke down, making sure their social credit remains high. Different versions about reasons for breaking up told

Question 26

Duck’s phase model AO3 (2p)

Answer 26

• Duck’s phase model was devised in 1982. However, improvements have been made to the model as time has passed. Duck teamed up with a psychologist called Rollie in 2006 and introduced a fifth phase to this model called, the resurrection phase. This is where the person engages in personal growth and gets prepared for new romantic relationships.
• Support for Duck’s phase model comes from the social exchange theory. This theory would support Duck’s phase model and would state that if a relationship has high costs and minimal rewards then the relationship is not worth continuing, but instead would breakdown.

Question 27

Duck’s phase model AO3 (3n)

Answer 27

• Akert (1998) has criticized Duck’s phase model. Akert found that the role that people had in deciding if the relationship should breakdown, was the most important prediction of the breakdown experience. Akert found that those who did not initiate the end of the relationship were the most miserable, lonely, depressed and angry in the weeks after the relationship ended. Those who initiate the break down were the least stressed and least upset, but did feel guilty.
• Duck’s phase model ignores gender differences that exist when analysing the breakdown of relationships. Kassin (1996) found research evidence to suggest that females emphasise unhappiness, lack of emotional support and incompatibility as reasons for relationship breakdown, whereas males state lack of sex and/or fun. Females often wish to stay friends with an ex-partner, but males would rather have a clean break and not stay friends.
• Duck’s phase model could be viewed as overly simplistic. It is reducing the complex phenomenon of relationship breakdown into four simple stages that must follow a specific order. In the real world it would seem unlikely that relationship breakdown can be compartmentalised or reduced into four basic stages. Won’t happen in that order either

Question 28

Self disclosure in virtual relationships (AO1)

Answer 28

self-disclosure tends to occur much faster in virtual relationships.
One reason for this is the anonymity associated with virtual relationships;
people tend to hold off disclosing personal information in real life for fear of
ridicule or rejection, unless they are confident that they can trust the person
and that information won’t be leaked to mutual friends. However, there is much
less risk of this in virtual relationships.

Question 29

Hyper personal model (AO1)

Answer 29

• Walther (2011) proposed the hyperpersonal model of virtual relationships, suggesting that, as self-disclosure in virtual relationships happens faster than in face-to-face ones, virtual relationships quickly become more intense and feel more intimate and meaningful. They can also end more quickly, however, as it is difficult to sustain the same level of intense self-disclosure for a long time.
• Walther (2011) also suggests that virtual relationships may feel more intimate
  because it is easier to manipulate self-disclosure online than face-to-face. Participants in online conversations have more time to edit their responses to present themselves in a more positive light; Walther (2011) calls this selective self-presentation. Projecting a positive image will make a virtual partner want to disclose more personal information, increasing the intensity of the relationship.

Question 30

Hyperpersonal model AO3 (1p, 2n)

Answer 30

• Whitty and Joinson (2009) conducted research which clearly demonstrates
  the effect of being online on self-disclosure. They discovered that in online discussion forums both questions and answers tend to be more direct, probing and intimate than in everyday face-to-face interactions
• Research has found that relationships which begin online are more durable than other relationships, rather than ending more quickly as the hyperpersonal model suggests. This is because of more open self-disclosure early on in the relationship
• Self-disclosure varies depending on the online context. People disclose more
  on gaming sites than they do on dating websites because the latter is more likely to lead to face-to-face encounters in the future.

Question 31

Reduced cue theory (AO1)

Answer 31

Spoull and Kiesler (1986) suggested that self-disclosure in virtual relationships
might be LESS open and honest than face-to-face ones. In real life we rely on a
lot of subtle cues, such as facial expressions and tone of voice, which are absent
in virtual relationships. According to reduced cue theory, reduction in non-
verbal communication leads to deindividuation because it diminishes people’s feelings of individual identity and brings on behaviours that people usually
restrain themselves from displaying, such as aggression. This may make online communications more aggressive, and the consequence of this is less self-
disclosure from other people,

Question 32

Reduced cue theory AO3 (2n)

Answer 32

• Reduced cue theory was developed when social media lacked face-to-face interaction, meaning they were much less rich in non-verbal communication than real life interactions. However, advanced technology allows for live interaction, which is much more similar to real life interactions.
• Non-verbal communication is not absent from virtual relationships, the cues are just different, e.g. emoticons are used as substitutes for facial expression and intonation. The timing of responses is also an important form of non-verbal communication

Question 33

Absence of gating in virtual relationships (AO1)

Answer 33

In real life, our attraction to other people is greatly influenced by their appearance, mannerisms and factors such as age and ethnicity.
Being online removes factors that normally act as a barrier (gate) to interaction. This creates more opportunities for shy or less attractive people to develop romantic relationships.
The absence of gating online also means that people can establish virtual identities they could never create face-to-face. For example, a shy person can become more outgoing.

Question 34

Positive evaluation of gating in virtual relationships

Answer 34

There are social benefits to the absence of gating in virtual relationships. For example, the absence of gating could reduce loneliness due by making it easier for some people to access to social interactions and to seek out company. Rosenfeld and Thomas (2012) showed the importance of online communication for developing romantic relationships. Out of 4,000 participants studied, 72% of those with internet access were married or had a romantic partner, compared to only 36% of those without internet access. These findings suggest
that a virtual environment helps people to establish and maintain romantic relationships.

• Zahoa et al. (2008) claim that the absence of gating has positive effects on people’s offline relationships. People create an online identity that is appreciated by others, and this enhances their overall self-image and increases the quality of their face-to-face relationships as well
• Baker and Oswald (2010) suggest that the absence of gating in virtual relationships may be particularly useful for shy people. They asked 207 male and female participants to complete a questionnaire, scoring their answers in terms of shyness, internet use and perception of quality of their friendships. They found that those people who scored highly on shyness and internet use, perceived the quality of their friendships as high; this correlation was absent for people with low shyness scores. The findings imply that as online communication helps people to overcome their shyness, so the quality of their face-to-face communication also improves.

Question 35

Negative evaluation of gating in virtual relationships

Answer 35

• People are involved in both online and offline relationships every day; it’s not
  an either/or situation. This means that there are fewer differences between virtual relationships and face to face relationships than research seems to suggest, and research examining virtual relationships often fails to take into account the effect of these relationships on a person’s offline interactions, and vice versa.
• Most of the research examining gating was conducted in the late 1990s and
  early 2000s. As technology is changing rapidly, so is the nature of online
  relationships; therefore, psychological research in this area risks becoming
  outdated by the time it is published. This lowers the temporal validity of
  research into virtual relationships.

Question 36

What are parasocial relationships?

Answer 36

Parasocial relationships refer to one-sided relationships with a celebrity, a
prominent person in the community, or a fictional character, when a fan knows
everything about the subject of their adoration and feels very close to them,
but there is no chance of reciprocity.

Question 37

Levels of parasocial relationships (AO1)

Answer 37

Giles and Maltby (2006) identified three levels of parasocial relationships, using the celebrity attitude scale in a large scale survey

1. Entertainment-Social:Most people engage in parasocial relationships at some point in their lives, but most stay at this first level. Celebrities are seen as a source of entertainment and as a topic for light-hearted gossiping with friends.
2. Intense-Personal: This is a deeper level of parasocial relationships. At this level a person has a more intense relationship with a celebrity. For example, they may see them as a soulmate and they have an intense interest in the celebrity’s personal life, such as their dress sense, food they like and entertainment in which they take part.
3. Borderline pathological: This is the most intense level of parasocial relationships. At this level, a person takes celebrity worship to an extreme, has obsessive fantasies about the celebrity, spends large sums of money to obtain memorabilia and may engage in illegal activities such as stalking.

Question 38

Evaluation of levels of parasocial relationships (2p)

Answer 38

• Schiappa et al. (2007) found a significant positive correlation between the amount of television participants watched, the degree to which they perceived a TV character as ‘real’ and the level of their parasocial relationship.
• There is research support for the claim that attractiveness increases the likelihood of a parasocial relationship; the attractiveness of a celebrity influenced the development of the three levels of parasocial relationships from members of the public.

Question 39

Evaluation of levels of parasocial relationships (3n)

Answer 39

• Educational levels of individuals needs to be taken into account. Highly educated individuals may perceive the majority of celebrities as less educated than themselves, therefore, are less likely to engage in parasocial relationships.
• It was recommend that training should occur in schools to highlight the dangers of parasocial relationships as it often results in an individual having unrealistic goals to be more similar to celebrities. one may develop an eating disorder in order to obtain the slim body of a media star.
• Research into the levels of parasocial relationships was conducted via questionnaires. These can be affected by socially desirable and idealised answers, thus, lacking validity.

Question 40

Absorption addition model AO1

Answer 40

The absorption-addiction model (McCutcheon et al. 2002) attempts to explain why people develop parasocial relationships. It argues that pursuing parasocial relationships makes up for deficits in an individual’s real life relationships. Relationships with celebrities are seen as an attempt to cope with or escape from reality.

• people with an addictive nature will escalate through a series of stages until their parasocial relationship becomes a total pre-occupation with a celebrities life

1. Absorption: Seeking fulfilment in celebrity worship motivates one to focus all their attention on the celebrity, to become pre-occupied in their existence and identify with them.
2. Addiction: The individual sustains their commitment to the relationship by feeling a stronger and close involvement with the celebrity. This leads to more extreme behaviours and delusional thinking

Question 41

Absorption Addiction Model AO3 (3p)

Answer 41

• Research supports a link between loneliness and engaging in parasocial
  relationships. For example, Greenwood and Long (2009) found some evidence that people may develop parasocial relationships as a way of dealing with a recent loss or loneliness.
• Stalkers often have a history of failed sexual relationships at the time of the stalking. Stalking in such cases is a reaction to social incompetence, isolation and loneliness.
• Maltby et al. (2005) measured the relationship between parasocial relationships and body image in teenagers. They found that teenage girls who engaged in parasocial relationships tended to have a poor body image, especially if they particularly admired a celebrity’s physical appearance

Question 42

Absorption Addiction model AO3 (2n)

Answer 42

• Most research into parasocial relationships is correlational. This means that cause and effect cannot be clearly established, lowering the scientific explanatory power. Correlation doesn’t imply causation
• The absorption-addiction model is better suited to describing levels of parasocial relationships than explaining how people develop these attitudes. This model attempts to establish universal principles of behaviour and as such misses out on deep insight into the reasons for behaviour.

Question 43

Attachment theory AO1 (attachment)

Answer 43

• Parasocial relationships can be linked to attachment problems in childhood. Several characteristics of parasocial relationships are linked to attachment e.g. protest at loss of attachment figure is similar to separation protest seen in infants. People with childhood attachment problems form parasocial relationships to meet their need for attachment/affection.

Question 44

Attachment theory AO1 (monotropic theory and maternal deprivation)

Answer 44

• Some psychologists use Bowlby’s monotropic theory and maternal deprivation theory to explain parasocial relationships. Bowlby noted that failure to form a monotropic attachment before the critical period of two years of age, or developing a poor attachment, had several long term impacts. People can become affectionless psychopaths, develop a poor internal working model.
• individuals who didn’t form a strong bond with a primary caregiver in early childhood will try to find an attachment substitute as adults, and engaging in parasocial relationships allows them to do this.

Question 45

Attachment theory AO1 (types of attachment)

Answer 45

• individuals who formed insecure-resistant relationships with their primary caregiver in early childhood will be more likely to form parasocial relationships, as they are too afraid of the criticism and rejection that are a part of real life relationships.
• insecure-resistant children are very clingy to their mothers and show less explorative behaviour than children of other attachment types, as they do not feel safe enough to leave their parent. They also show great distress when their mothers leave the room.
• According to Hazan and Shaver (1987), this behaviour translates into clingy and jealous behaviour in adulthood, making it difficult for people to develop committed and lasting romantic relationships. Intensive parasocial relationships allows people with an insecure-resistant attachment style to engage in a fantasy about the perfect relationships, without the risk of rejection.

Question 46

Attachment theory AO3 (3p)

Answer 46

• Cole and Leets (1999) found that individuals with an insecure-resistant attachment style were more likely to engage in parasocial relationships with their favourite TV personality, and insecure-avoidant individuals were the least likely to engage in parasocial relationships. This suggests there is a relationship between early attachment in childhood and adult parasocial relationships.
• Research has found that 63% of stalkers experienced loss of a primary caregiver in childhood usually from parental separation. 50% reported childhood emotional, physical or sexual abuse from their primary caregivers. This supports the idea that disturbed attachment in childhood is related to extreme forms of parasocial relationships as an adult
• A study found that adults with insecure attachment types had positive attitudes to obsessive behaviours and stalking. Pathological attachment types tend to stalk which implies stalking is related to childhood attachment.

Question 47

Attachment theory AO3 (2n)

Answer 47

• Research studies into the link between infant attachment type and parasocial relationships rely on participants’ memories about their early lives in order to assess their infant attachment style. Such recollections are likely to be flawed because our memories of the past are not always accurate, meaning the studies are not valid.
• Parasocial relationships can be positive and not just about fulfilling attachment needs. For example, they allow a safe exploration of emotions.