Forensic psycholgy

Question 1

Offender profiling AO1

Answer 1

Offender profiling is a tool employed by the police to narrow down the list of likely suspects. Offender profiling is based on the idea that the characteristics of the offender can be deduced from details of the offence and crime scene. Profiling methods vary, but usually involve careful scrutiny of the crime scene and analysis of evidence, including witness reports, in order to generate a hypothesis about the probable characteristics of the offender

Question 2

Top- down approach AO1

Answer 2

Templates of organised offender and disorganised offender are pre-existing in the mind of the profiler. Evidence from the crime scene and other details of the crime/victim/context are then used to fit the offender into either of the two pre-existing categories, and determine the offender as one type or the other.

Organised offenders - show evidence of having planned the crime in advance, victim deliberately targeted. Maintain high level of control during crime and leave little evidence at crime scene

Disorganised offenders - show little evidence of planning suggesting offence was spontaneous, body usually left at scene, offender tends to be of lower intelligence, he in unskilled work and often have history of failed relationships. Tend to live alone and close to where the offence took place

Question 3

Top Down approach AO3 (4n)

Answer 3

• only applies to certain crimes like arson, murder and rape. Common offences like burglary do not lend themselves to top-down profiling as crime scene reveals very little about the offender
• The organised or disorganised distinction was developed based on interviews with 36 serial killers in the USA. Critics have pointed out that this is too small and unrepresentative a sample upon which to base a typology system.
• Top-down profiling was developed based on interviews with 36 sexually motivates serial killers, including Ted Bundy and Charles Manson. Not valid to rely on self-report data from convicted serial killers.
• disorganised or organised distinction is overly simplistic. Holmes (1989) suggests there are 4 types of killer, visionary (because god or devil), mission (kill to eradicate a group), hedonistic (for thrill), power (to have complete control)
• Canter et al. (2004) analysed data from 100 murders in the USA with reference to the characteristics thought to be typical of organised and disorganised killers. The findings did suggest evidence of a distinct organised type, however this was not the case for disorganised type which undermines the entire classification system.

Question 4

Bottom up approach AO1

Answer 4

The bottom-up approach was developed in the UK, the aim of this approach is to generate a picture of the offender, including their likely characteristics, routine behaviour, and social background. This is achieved through systematic analysis of evidence left at the crime scene. The bottom-up approach does not begin with fixed typologies (as the top-down approach does), instead the profile is data-driven and emerges as the profiler engages in rigorous scrutiny of the details of the offence.

Question 5

Investigative psychology AO1

Answer 5

The aim of investigative psychology is to establish behaviours that are likely to occur at certain crime scenes. This is done in order to create a statistical database which then acts as a baseline for comparison. Specific details of an offence can then be matched against this database in order to reveal statistically probable details about the offender (their personal history, family background etc.). This can also help determine whether multiple offences are linked and likely to have been committed by the same individual.

The significance of time and place of the crime is also a key variable and may indicate where the offender lives. Forensic awareness describes individuals who have made an attempt to ‘cover their tracks’ (i.e. hide the body/murder weapon or clean the crime scene). Their behaviour may indicate that they have been the subject of police interrogation in the past, or even that the police already have their DNA or fingerprints on file.

Question 6

Geographical profiling AO1

Answer 6

Geographical profiling is the study of spatial behaviour in relation to crime and offenders. It focuses on the location of the crime as a clue to where the offender lives, works and socialises. Relevant data includes the crime scene,

local crime statistics, local transport, and geographical spread of similar crimes. The assumption is that a serious offender will restrict their criminal activities to an area that they are familiar with, and the offender’s base will therefore be in the middle of the spatial pattern of their crime scenes. Earlier crimes are likely to be closer to the offender’s base than later crimes. As an offender becomes more confidence they will often travel further from their comfort zone.

Canter and Larkin (1993) propose two models of offender behaviour: the marauder (who operates close to their home) and the commuter (who is likely to have travelled a distance away from their home). Crucially, though, the spatial pattern of their crime scenes will still form a circle around their home

Question 7

Bottom up approach AO3 (2p, 2n)

Answer 7

• Canter argues that bottom-up profiling is more scientific than top-down profiling because it is more grounded in evidence and psychological theory and less driven by speculation and hunches than top-down profiling.
• Bottom-up profiling, unlike top-down profiling, can be applied to a wide variety of offences, such as burglary and theft, as well as murder and rape.

Negatives:

• Copson (1995) surveyed 48 police forces and found that the advice provided by a profiler was judged to be useful in 83% of cases, but in only 3% of cases did it lead to the accurate identification of the offender.
• Kocsis et al. (2002) found that chemistry students produced a more accurate offender profile than experienced senior detectives. This implies that the bottom-up approach is little more than common sense and guess work.

Question 8

Atavistic Form AO1

Answer 8

Lombroso argued that the criminal sub-species could be identified by a set of particular physiological characteristics that were linked to particular types of crime. These were biologically determined atavistic (meaning reversion to something ancestral) characteristics,

• narrow slopping brow, strong prominent jaw, high cheekbones and facial asymmetry and dark skin
• murderers have bloody shot eyes, curly hair and long ears
• sexual deviants have glinting eyes, fleshly lips and projecting ears

Other non-physical traits include insensitivity to pain, use of criminal slang, tattoos and unemployment

Lombroso examined the skulls of 383 dead criminals and 3839 living ones, and concluded that 40% of criminal acts could be accounted for by the criminal subculture.

Question 9

Atavistic Form AO3 (1p,3n)

Answer 9

• positive is that the atavistic form had an important role in the shift away from theories based on feeble-mindedness, wickedness and demonic possession. It was the forerunner to more biological explanations
• Several critics have drawn attention to the distinct racist undertones in Lombroso’s work. Many of the features he described as atavistic (e.g. dark skin and curly hair) are most likely to be found in people of African descent.
• Goring (1913) set out to establish if there were any physical or mental abnormalities among the criminal classes. After conducting a comparison of 3,000 criminals and 3,000 non-criminals he concluded that there was no evidence that offenders had particular facial and cranial characteristics.
• Lombroso did not compare his criminal sample to a non-criminal control group. If he had done then the differences he reported may have disappeared. Facial features can also be influenced by poverty and poor diet

Question 10

Genetic explanations AO1

Answer 10

Genetic explanations for crime suggest that would-be offenders inherit a gene, or combination of genes, that predisposes them to commit crime. Lange (1930) investigated 13 monozygotic (identical) twins and 17 dizygotic (non-identical) twins. At least one of the twins in each pair had served time in prison. 10 of the 13 pairs of monozygotic twins had both spent time in prison, whereas only 2 of the 17 pairs of dizygotic twins had both spent time in prison.

Criminal behaviour polygenic. Tilhonene et al 2014 conducted a genetic analysis of over 900 Finnish offenders, found two genes associated with violent crime. MAOA gene which controls dopamine and serotonin and brain and is linked to aggressive behaviour and CDH13 linked to substance abuse and attention deficit disorder

Diathesis stress model holds that genetics influence criminal behaviour but it’s moderated by the effects of the environment . A tendency towards criminal behaviour may come through a combination of genetic predisposition and biological or psychological triggers, such as being raised in a dysfunctional environment

Question 11

Neural explanations AO1

Answer 11

Evidence suggests that there may be neural differences in the brains of criminals compared with non-criminals. Much of the evidence in this area has investigated individuals diagnosed with anti-social personality disorder (APD). APD is associated with reduced emotional responses and a lack of empathy, a condition that characterises many convicted criminals.

There are several dozen brain-imaging studies demonstrating that individuals with anti-social personalities have reduced activity in the pre-frontal cortex of the brain. This is the brain area that regulates emotional behaviour. Raine et al. (2000) found an 11% reduction in the volume of grey matter in the prefrontal cortex of people with APD compared to a control group.

Question 12

Genetic and Neural explanations AO3 (4n)

Answer 12

• Concordance rates in MZ twins are not high and leave plenty of room for non- genetic environmental factors. Concordance rates may be due to shared learning experiences rather than genetics.
• Brain scanning studies (such as Raine et al., 2000) show pathology in brains of criminal psychopaths, but cannot conclude whether these abnormalities are genetic or signs of early abuse
• The term ‘offending behaviour’ is too vague. Some specific forms of crime may be more biological than others e.g. physical aggression.
• The genetic and neural explanation of criminal behaviour is also an example of biological determinism. This presents us with a dilemma for our legal system. If someone has a criminal gene they cannot have personal and moral responsibility for their crime. If this is the case it would be unethical to punish someone who does not have free will.

Question 13

Eysenck theory of the criminal personality AO1

Answer 13

• Eysenck (1947) proposed that behaviour could be represented along two dimensions: introversion/ extraversion and neuroticism/stability. The two dimensions combine to form a variety of personality traits. Eysenck later added a third dimension – psychoticis
• According to Eysenck (1947) our personality traits are biological in origin and come about through the type of nervous system we inherit from our parents. Therefore, all personality types, including the criminal personality type, have an innate, biological basis.
• The criminal personality type is neurotic-extravert. Eysenck suggested a typical offender will also score highly on psychoticism – cold, unemotional and prone to aggression.
• Eysenck believed that people with high extraversion and neuroticism scores had nervous systems that made them difficult to condition, as a result they will not learn easily to respond to their anti-social impulses with anxiety.

Question 14

Eysenck theory AO3 (4n)

Answer 14

• Farrington et al. (1982) reviewed several studies and reported that offenders tended to score higher on psychoticism, but NOT on extraversion and neuroticism, than non-offenders
• The idea that all offending behaviour can be explained by a single personality type has been heavily criticised as being simplistic. Crime is too varied and complex a behaviour to be due to one single personality type
• Eysenck ‘s theory is out of step with modern personality theory. Digman’s (1990) Five Factor Model of personality suggests that openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness are important personality dimensions
• Eysenck’s theory is based on the idea that it is possible to measure personality through psychological tests. Critics have argued that personality may not be reducible to a score in this way. Personality changes regularly

Question 15

Moral reasoning AO1

Answer 15

Moral reasoning refers to the process by which an individual draws upon their own value system to determine whether an action is right or wrong. Kohlberg (1973) proposed that the quality of people’s judgments of right and wrong can be summarised by a stage theory of moral development
Offenders more likely to have their moral reasoning classified at pre-conventional level (shows concern for self interest and external rewards and punishments). 2nd stage is conventional (does what is expected by others) and third stage is post-conventional (individual develops more autonomous decision making based on principles of right and justice)

Question 16

Moral reasoning AO3 (1p, 1n)

Answer 16

• Palmer and Hollin (1998) compared moral reasoning between 210 female non- offenders, 122 male non-offenders and 126 convicted offenders using 11 moral dilemmas, such as not taking things that belong to others. The offenders showed less mature moral reasoning than the non-offenders.
• The level of moral reasoning may depend on the type of offence. Thornton and Reid (1982) found that individuals who committed crimes for financial gain, such as robbery, were more likely to show pre-conventional reasoning than those convicted of impulsive crimes (such as assault), where no reasoning was evident.

Question 17

Cognitive distortions AO1

Answer 17

Cognitive distortions are faulty and irrational ways of thinking that make people perceive themselves, other people and the world inaccurately, and often negatively.
Hostile attribution bias is the tendency to judge ambiguous situations, or the actions of others, as aggressive and/or threatening when in reality they are not. Offenders may misread non-aggressive cues and this may trigger a disproportionate, often violent, response. Hostile attribution bias can lead to the offender blaming the victim for having ‘started it’.
Minimalisation is when a criminal believes that their crime was trivial and downplays the impact of their crime on their victims. This is a common strategy that people use when attempting to avoid feeling guilt. Offenders often use euphemisms for their offences.

Question 18

Cognitive distortion AO3 (1p, 2n)

Answer 18

• Understanding the nature of cognitive distortions has proven beneficial in the treatment of criminal behaviour. The dominant approach in the rehabilitation of sex offenders is cognitive behavioural therapy. This encourages offenders to ‘face up’ to what they have done and establish a less distorted view of their actions. A reduced incidence of cognitive distortions in therapy is highly correlated with a reduced risk of offending.
• One key failing with the cognitive approach is that, whilst it explains thinking, it cannot account for the source of of these thoughts (is it nature or nurture?).
• Cognitive distortions cannot be observed or measured. This means the cognitive explanation of criminal behaviour is not scientific.

Question 19

Differential Association theory AO1

Answer 19

This explanation of offending proposes that offending depends on the norms/values of the offender’s social group. Offending is more likely to occur where the social group values deviant behaviour.

When a person is socialised into a social group they will be exposed to the group’s norms and values towards the law. Some groups will be pro-crime, some will be anti-crime. Sutherland (1924) argues that if the number of pro-criminal attitudes that a person comes into contact with out-weigh the number of anti- criminal attitudes then they will become an offender.

Differential association suggests that it should be possible to mathematically predict how likely it is that someone will commit crime, if we have knowledge of the frequency, intensity and duration of which they have been exposed to criminal and non-criminal norms and values.

Learning can occur through imitation, vicarious reinforcement, direct reinforcement or direct tuition from criminal peers.

potential offender may also learn particular techniques for committing crime. These might include how to pick locks, hot wire a car etc. This theory explains how crime can spread among specific social groups and communities. Sutherland (1924) can account for why so many convicts released from prison go on to reoffend.

Question 20

Differential Association AO3 (2p, 2n)

Answer 20

• This theory is able to account for crime within all sectors of society. While Sutherland (1924) recognised that some types of crime, such as burglary, may be clustered within inner-city, working class communities, it is also the case that some crimes are most prevalent among affluent groups.
• Sutherland was successful in moving the emphasis away from early biological
  explanations of crime (i.e. Lombroso) and those explanations which saw offending as being the product of individual weakness or immorality. Differential association theory draws attention to the role of dysfunctional social circumstances and environments in criminality.
• not everyone exposed to criminal behaviour goes on to become a criminal. Stereotypes people who grow up in bad areas .
• Differential association theory offers a more desirable and realistic solution to offending behaviour than the biological solution (eugenics) or the morality solution (punishment).
• Differential association theory is difficult to test scientifically, most of the evidence to support it is correlational (does not demonstrate cause and effect). How can the pro-crime attitudes a person has been exposed to be measured? Similarly, the theory is built on the assumption that offending behaviour will occur when pro-criminal values outnumber anti-criminal ones. Won’t know at what point the urge to offend will trigger a criminal career

Question 21

L8 - Inadequate Superego AO1

Answer 21

• The superego is the last aspect of personality to form. It develops at the end of the phallic stage of psychosexual development at 3-6 years old.

-Blackburn (1993) argued that if the superego is somehow deficient or inadequate then criminal behaviour is inevitable because the id is not properly controlled. Three types of inadequate superego have been proposed:
1. Weak Superego – If the same-sex parent is absent during the phallic stage, the child cannot internalise a fully formed superego because there is no opportunity for identification. This would make offending behaviour likely.
2. Deviant Superego – If the superego that the child internalises has immoral or deviant values this can lead to offending behaviour.
3. Over-Harsh Superego – A healthy superego has rules, but is also forgiving of transgressions. An excessively punitive superego means an individual is crippled by guilt and anxiety. This may unconsciously drive the individual to perform criminal acts in order to satisfy the superego’s need for punishment.

Question 22

Inadequate Superego AO3 (5n)

Answer 22

• An assumption of the Psychodynamic approach is the idea that girls develop a weaker superego than boys. The implication is that females should be more prone to criminal behaviour. This is simply not supported by crime statistics.
• Hoffman (1975) tested children’s ability to resist temptation. He found hardly any gender difference, although girls were slightly more moral than boys.
• There is very little evidence that children raised without a same-sex parent are less law-abiding as adults (or have less of a conscience).
• If children raised by deviant parents go on to commit crime themselves this could be due to genetics or learning rather than a deviant superego.
• The idea that some criminals have an unconscious desire for punishment is implausible, most offenders go to great lengths to conceal their crime and so avoid punishment.

Question 23

Custodial Sentencing Aims AO1

Answer 23

Custodial sentencing involves a convicted offender spending time in prison or another closed institution, such as a young offenders institute or psychiatric hospital.

1. Deterrence - the unpleasant prison experience is designed to deter an individual from engaging in offending behaviour in the future. Deterrence works on two levels: general deterrence aims to send a broad message to members of a society that crime will not be tolerated. Individual deterrence should prevent the individual from repeating the same crime.
2. Incapacitation – The offender is taken out of society to prevent them from reoffending as a means of protecting the public. The need for incapacitation depends upon the severity of the offence and the nature of the offender.
3. Retribution – Society is enacting revenge for the crime by making the offender suffer, and the level of suffering should be proportionate to the crime.
4. Rehabilitation – Upon release, prisoners should be better adjusted and ready to take their place in society. Prison should provide opportunities to develop skills, receive training or to access treatment programs for addiction, as well as receive counselling and have an opportunity to reflect on their crime.

Question 24

Psychological effects of custodial sentencing AO1

Answer 24

Research has revealed several psychological effects associated with serving time in prison:
1. Psychological Disorders–Prisons have higher incidences of mental illnesses such as depression, anxiety, self-harm, suicide, and low self- esteem. A study by the Prison Reform Trust (2014) found that 25% of women and 15% of men in prison reported symptoms of psychosis. The oppressive prison regime can trigger psychological disorders. Zimbardo’s (1973) ‘Stanford Prison Experiment’ demonstrated the psychological effects of imprisonment.
2. Institutionalisation – Spending time in prison leads to a lack of autonomy, conformity to the role of prisoner and a dependency on prison culture.
3. Brutalisation – Prison acts as a school for crime and reinforces criminal lifestyle and criminal norms. This leads to high recidivism, 70% of young offenders re-offend within two years.
4. Labelling – Prisoners often lose touch with previous social contacts and find it difficult to gain employment because they are labelled as a criminal. This will all contribute to an increased likelihood of recidivism.

Question 25

Custodial Sentencing AO3 (1p,3n)

Answer 25

• Custodial sentencing can be useful. It shows that justice has been done and limits the danger to the public. Many prisoners access education and training whilst in prison, increasing the chance they will find employment upon release. Also, treatment programmes, such as anger management therapy and social skills training may help offenders modify their behaviour and so avoid reoffending.
• Suicide rates are 15% higher in the prison population than they are in the general population. However, it is difficult to demonstrate that psychological disorders are caused by imprisonment. Prisoners with psychiatric conditions may very well have had problems before they were institutionalised.
• The courts need to be selective about who they send to prison, 8–10% of criminals commit 50% of all crimes (Peterson 1981). Custodial sentencing is best reserved for these repeat offenders.
• Crime prevention is more effective than custodial sentencing because it avoids labelling a person as a criminal and also avoids the negative consequences of prison. Alternative sentences, such as community service, are more effective for low-risk offenders because they can keep their social contacts and their job.

Question 26

Behaviour Modification AO1

Answer 26

Behaviour modification is a behavioural therapy based on principles of operant conditioning. It involves the systematic use of positive and negative reinforcement for desired behaviours

Token economy is a form of behaviour modification used in prisons. Desirable behaviour is reinforced with a token, which can be exchanged for some form of reward. Desirable behaviour in prison is likely to include avoiding conflict, following prison rules, keeping your cell orderly etc. Tokens are secondary reinforcers because they can be exchanged for a reward (the primary reinforcers). The rewards that tokens can be exchanged for vary from prison to prison, they may include a phone call to a loved one, time in the gym, access to a computer, extra cigarettes, or extra food. It is also emphasised that non-compliance or disobedience will result in the tokens being withheld (negative punishment).

Question 27

Behaviour modification AO3 (1p, 3n)

Answer 27

• token economy easy to administer, doesn’t require expert professionals or specialised equipment. Can be implemented by anyone, it’s also cost effective and easy to follow once method of reinforcement has been established
• token economy doesn’t work if staff aren’t consistent. Lack of appropriate training or high staff turnover make consistency problematic.
• behaviour modification can only be used in controlled environment. Any positive change that occurs why the prisoner is incarcerated are quickly lost once the prisoner is released. This is because law-abiding behaviour is not always reinforced on the outside. Also, prisoners may just be playing along to get rewards, and not really trying to change their behaviour
• critics say token economy is unethical. Some prisons make participation compulsory. But the offender can decide whether they to obey the rules or not. This can lead to privileges like exercise or contact with loved ones being removed which can be physically and psychologically harmful

Question 28

Anger management AO1

Answer 28

Anger management is a form of cognitive behavioural therapy. The individual is taught how to recognise when they are losing control, and encouraged to develop techniques which bring about conflict-resolution without resorting to violence.

Anger Management has three phases:
1) Cognitive Preparation –The offender learns to identify the triggers for
their anger. They reflect on events in the past when they became angry. They consider if the way that they interpreted those events was rational. The therapist’s role is to help the offender redefine the situation as non- threatening.

2) Skill Acquisition – The offender is introduced to a range of techniques and skills to help them handle anger-provoking situations more rationally. Techniques could be cognitive (positive self-talk to encourage calmness); behavioural (assertiveness training to communicate more effectively); or physiological (methods of relaxation and meditation).

3) Application Practice – The offender is given the opportunity to practise the skills they learned in the skill acquisition stage in a carefully monitored environment. Role plays are often used to re-enact scenarios that in the past led to the offender committing an act of violence. The offender must take this seriously and see the scenario as real, and the therapist has to be brave and ‘wind up’ the offender. Successful negotiation of the role play will be met with positive reinforcement from the therapist.

Question 29

Anger management AO3 (2p,2n)

Answer 29

• Anger management is a multidisciplinary approach (cognitive, behavioural and social elements are included) which acknowledges that offending is a complex social and psychological behaviour, and any attempt to address it must include these different elements.
• Unlike behaviour modification, anger management tries to get to the root cause of offending behaviour (the thought processes that lead to anger/violence), rather than focusing on superficial surface behaviour.
• Anger management programmes are expensive to run as they require a highly trained specialist who is used to dealing with violent offenders. Many prisons do not have the resources to run such programmes
• The success of anger management is based on the commitment of those who participate, and this is a problem if prisoners are uncooperative or apathetic.

Question 30

Restorative Justice AO1

Answer 30

Restorative justice is a process of managed collaboration between the offender and the victim based on the principles of healing and empowerment. A trained mediator facilitates a meeting between the offender and the victim. The victim is given the opportunity to confront the offender and explain how the crime affected them. The offender is confronted with the consequences of their actions,

Restorative justice programmes are quite diverse but they all share key features:
 Focus on acceptance of responsibility and positive change for offenders (less emphasis on punishment).
 Not restricted to courtrooms, survivors (seen as more empowering than ‘victims’) and offenders meet face-to-face in a non-courtroom setting.
 Active rather than passive involvement of all parties in the process.
 Focus on positive outcomes for survivors and offenders.

• Restorative justice can function as an alternative to custodial sentences, especially if the offender is young, as an additional to community service, or as an incentive to reduce an existing custodial sentence

Question 31

Restorative Justice AO3 (1p,3n)

Answer 31

• shapland et al 2007 conducted a government funded research project and found that every 1 Pound spent on restorative justice would save the criminal justice system 8 pounds by reducing recidivism. But restorative justice requires specialist and highly trained professionals
• Victims may have an ulterior motive for agreeing to take part in restorative justice, they may simply want to seek revenge.
• Restorative justice is unpopular with the general public because it is regarded as a ‘soft option’. This means that politicians are unwilling to support it because they want to please the electorate by seeming ‘tough on crime’.
• The success of restorative justice relies on the offender showing remorse. Some offenders might sign up for the scheme to avoid prison, or reduce their sentence, rather than from a genuine willingness to change. This could explain the high dropout rates in restorative justice, offenders often change their mind because they were not committed to the process in the first place.

The organisation ‘Women’s Aid’ has called for an end to the use of restorative justice in domestic abuse cases because the offender can exploit this opportunity to convince the victim to take them back. Abusers often have a lot of power over their victims and so a meeting between them could be dangerous.