Issues And Debates

Question 1

Universality definition

Answer 1

Psychology claims to have universality, which means the conclusions is draws can be applied to everyone, anywhere, regardless of time, culture or gender.

Question 2

Gender bias

Answer 2

Gender bias is when psychological research may offer a view that does not
justifiably represent the experience of men or women (usually women).

Question 3

Alpha Bias definition + example

Answer 3

Alpha bias is when there is a misrepresentation of behaviour because researchers overestimate/exaggerate the differences between the genders. These differences often devalue women in relation to men.

An example of alpha bias is in the sociobiological theory of relationship formation. It argues that it is in a males’ interest to impregnate as many different women as possible to increase the chance of his genes being passed one. Women, it argues, should focus on ensuring the healthy survival of their relatively few children. The message is that sexual promiscuity in males is genetically determined, and females who engage in the same behaviour are going against nature and so are abnormal.

Question 4

Beta Bias definition and example

Answer 4

Beta bias is when there is a misrepresentation of behaviour because researchers underestimate/minimise gender differences. This often happens when female participants’ are not included in a research study, but it is still assumed that the research findings can be applied to both genders.

An example of beta bias is the fight-or-flight response, early research focused exclusively on male animals and is was assumed that there would be a universal response to a threatening situation. But more recently, Taylor et al. (2000) have suggested that biology has evolved to inhibit the fight-or-flight response in women, who instead have a tendency to tend-and-befriend

Question 5

Androcentrism

Answer 5

Theories which are centred on, or focused on males. Gender bias might result in androcentrism – the belief that men’s behaviour represents the norm and therefore that any behaviour typical of women might be judged abnormal

Question 6

Evaluation of gender bias (2p, 2n)

Answer 6

+ Male researchers within psychology are still more likely to have their research published than female researchers, and research which finds gender differences is more likely to be published than research which finds no such difference. Psychology may be guilty of supporting a form of institutional sexism.

+ Gender biased research may provide scientific justification for denying women opportunities within society. In the 1930s ‘scientific’ research revealed that intellectual activity (such as attending university) would shrivel women’s ovaries and reduce their chances of conceiving.

• Many modern researchers have begun to recognise the effect that their own values and assumptions have on their work, Dambrin and Lambert (2008) included a reflection of how their own gender related experiences affected their reading of events when they investigated the reason for the lack of women in accountancy firms.
• Worell (1992) have put forward a number of criteria which should be adhered to in order to avoid gender bias in research: women should be studied within meaningful life contexts, women should genuinely participate in psychological research (not just be the objects of research), diversity within groups of women should be examined (rather than comparisons made between men and women), there should be more collaborative research methods used that collect qualitative data.

Question 7

Culture bias

Answer 7

Cultural bias is the tendency to judge people in terms of one’s own cultural assumptions. If the norm or standard for a particular behaviour is judged only from the standpoint of one particular culture then any cultural differences in behaviour will be seen as abnormal or even inferior.

Question 8

How to reduce culture bias

Answer 8

researchers should not attempt to extrapolate findings or theories to cultures that are not represented in the research sample or assume that there are universal norms across different cultures. They should use researchers who are native to the culture being investigated, carry out cross-cultural research rather than research with a sole culture, and be sensitive to cultural norms when designing research.

Question 9

Ethnocentrism

Answer 9

Ethnocentrism is emphasising the importance of the behaviour of one’s own culture. In psychological research this is communicated through a view that any behaviours that do not conform to the (usually Western) model are somehow deficient, unsophisticated or underdeveloped.

Question 10

Example of ethnocentrism

Answer 10

Ainsworth strange situation, it assumed that a securely attached child would show moderate distress (separation protest) when their caregiver left them and that if this didn’t happen the child was insecurely attached. This means that German mothers were seen as cold and rejecting because their babies did not show this mild distress, when it could be interpreted as German mothers encouraging independence.

Question 11

Cultural relativism

Answer 11

This is the idea that a behaviour can only be properly understood in the context of the norms and values of the culture in which it occurs.

Question 12

Evaluation of culture bias (2p, 2n)

Answer 12

+ Cochrane and Sashidharan (1995) found that African-Caribbean immigrants are seven times more likely to be diagnosed with mental illness. This has led many to question the validity of the Diagnostic Statistical Manual (DSM) and International Classification of Diseases (ICD) for diagnosing individuals who are born outside of the culture that they were developed in.

+ There are mental illnesses in some cultures that do not exist in others. For example, the term brain fag is used in West Africa to describe a person who is experiencing difficulty concentrating and thinking. In China a man who believes his penis is retracting into his body is diagnosed with koro.

• There is evidence that some human behaviours are universal. For example, the basic facial expressions for emotions such as happiness or disgust are the same in all cultures, and even in the animal kingdom (Ekman, 1989). Also interactional synchrony between an infant and their caregiver has been observed in many cultures.
• Cross-cultural research is one way to prevent cultural bias in psychology. This shows that knowledge and concepts that we take for granted are not shared by other people around the world. This not only counters the charge of scientific racism that has been made against some psychological theories in the past, it means the conclusions that psychologists draw are likely to have more validity

Question 13

Free will

Answer 13

The notion of free will suggests that as human beings we are essentially self- determining and able to choose our thoughts and actions. The humanistic approach considers people to have free will.

Question 14

Determinism

Answer 14

Determinism is the general idea that our traits and behaviours are outside of our control, due to factors, either internal or external, over which we have no control.

Hard Determinism – This proposes that all of a person’s traits and behaviours are entirely out of the individual’s control. Human behaviour has a cause and so it should be possible to identify these causes. Hard determinism assumes that everything we think and feel and do is dictated by forces that we cannot control, and might not even be aware of.

Soft Determinism – This proposes that traits and behaviours are determined by external or internal forces but that an individual can still exercise some control via thought processes. The cognitive approach adheres to soft determinism.

Question 15

How is science heavily deterministic in its search for causal relationships

Answer 15

Wants to discover whether the IV lead to changes in the DV

If all variables are controlled except IV, this means that changes in the DV must be caused by manipulation of the IV.

Control group allows researchers to determine cause and effect, goal being to predict human behaviour

Question 16

Types of hard determinism

Answer 16

Biological Determinism – The biological approach argues that all of our traits and behaviours are governed by internal biological factors, like genes, neurochemistry, brain structure etc. There is no doubt that many of our physiological and neurological brain processes are not under conscious control – such as the autonomic nervous system during periods of stress and anxiety. In addition, lots of behaviours, characteristics (such as mental disorders) are thought to have a genetic basis and research has demonstrated the effect of hormones (such as the role of testosterone) in aggressive behaviour

Environmental Determinism – The idea that traits and behaviours are governed by external forces, such as experiences, upbringing, learning, schools, parents, peers etc. The behavioural approach holds that our experience of ‘choice’ is merely the sum total of reinforcement contingencies that have acted upon us throughout our lives. Although we might think we are acting independently, our behaviour has been shaped by environmental events as well as agents of socialisation.

Psychic Determinism – The idea that traits and behaviours are governed by unconscious instincts and drives. The psychodynamic approach sees human behaviour as determined and directed by unconscious conflicts, repressed in childhood. There is no such things as an accident, according to Freud, and even something as seemingly random as an innocuous ‘slip of the tongue’ can be explained as being caused by the unconscious

Question 17

Evaluation of determinism (3p,2n)

Answer 17

+ Chun Siong Soon et al. (2008) have demonstrated that the brain activity that determines simple choices occurs before we are even aware that we have made a choice. Participants were asked to decide whether to push a button with their left or right hand; brain imaging revealed that they made their decision up to ten seconds before reporting that they were consciously aware of making a decision.

+ Determinism is fundamental to the scientific focus on investigating causes of behaviour and being able to predict behaviour.

+ The prediction and control of human behaviour has led to the development of treatments, therapies and behavioural interventions that have benefitted many people. For instance, psychotherapeutic drug treatment in managing schizophrenia. Disorders like schizophrenia cast doubt on the concept of free will because no one would choose to have schizophrenia.

• The idea of free will has more face validity (it makes common sense) than determinism. Everyday experience gives people the impression that they are constantly exercising free will through the choices they make on any given day.
• People with an internal locus of control, who believe they have a high degree of control over their behaviour and their life, are more mentally healthy. Roberts et al. (2000) demonstrated that adolescents who had a strong belief that their lives were determined by events outside of their control were at higher risk of developing depression. Thinking we have free will has a positive impact on our mind and behaviour.

Question 18

Nature vs nurture debate

Answer 18

It is possible that behaviour is governed by nature and by nurture. The nature- nurture debate is about the relative contribution of each of these influences in determining an individual’s behaviour. The nature side of the debate assumes that heredity, genes, hormones etc. are more important. The nurture side assumes that the environment and a person’s experiences etc. are more important.

Question 19

Nature + biological approach

Answer 19

This is rooted in the nativist theory that knowledge and abilities are innate (a quality or ability you are born with). This does not simply refer to abilities present at birth but to any characteristic determined by genes.

The biological approach offers many genetic explanations for behaviour, the concordance rate for a mental disorder, such as schizophrenia, in monozygotic twins (identical genes) is 40%, but for dizygotic twins (50% of genes in common) is only 7% (Joseph, 2004).

Question 20

Nurture - behavioural approach

Answer 20

This is rooted in the empiricist theory that knowledge derives from learning. Environmental influences are acquired through interactions with the environment. This includes both the physical and the social world and is often referred to as experiences. Pre-natal environmental influences are part of nurture, for example whether or not a mother smokes during pregnancy

The behavioural approach assumes that all behaviour can be explained in terms of experience alone. For example, it claims that babies attach to their mothers because they associate them with the pleasure they get from food (classical conditioning). Social learning theory is a little less extreme than traditional behaviourism. Studies have shown that that behaviour, such as aggression (Bandura, 1963), is learnt through observing the behaviour of others (nurture

Question 21

Nurture and the double bind theory

Answer 21

The double bind theory of schizophrenia. (Bateson et al. 1956) suggests that schizophrenia develops in children who frequently receive contradictory messages from their parents, for example if a mother tells her son she loves him but at the same time turns her head away in disgust. Such mixed messages about her feelings prevent the child developing an internally consistent construction of reality.

Question 22

Nature and evolutionary explanations

Answer 22

Evolutionary explanations are based on the principle that a characteristic that promotes survival and reproduction will be naturally selected because it is far more likely to be passed on to subsequent generations. Bowlby (1969) proposed that attachment is adaptive because it means an infant will be more likely to be protected and therefore more likely survive.

Question 23

Evaluation of nature-nurture debate (4n)

Answer 23

• According to the Interactionist Approach nature and nurture are so closely intertwined that it makes little sense to separate them. The general heritability figure in IQ tests is around 0.5, this means that both genetics and the environment are important factors in determining an individual’s intelligence.
• Diathesis Stress Models are models of mental illness which emphasise the interaction of nature and nurture in causing mental illness. This means that a psychopathology, such as depression or schizophrenia, is caused by a genetic vulnerability (diathesis) which is only expressed when there is an environmental trigger (stress)

-A person’s nature can affect the nurture they receive. Scarr and McCartney et al. (1983) found that as children get older they seek out experiences that suit their genes. The influence of genetics actually increases as a child gets older.

• • Several studies have shown that nurture affects nature. Maguire et al. (2000) found that London Taxi drivers have a larger hippocampus than a control group. This is because the hippocampus deals with spatial memory. They were not born this way, the hippocampus has responded to increased use.

Question 24

Reductionism

Answer 24

Reductionism involves breaking a complex phenomenon (like behaviour) down into constituent elements. Reductionism considers this process to be desirable because complex phenomena are best understood in terms of a simple explanation.

Question 25

Levels of explanation

Answer 25

The reductionist approach in psychology suggests that explanations for a behaviour should begin at the highest level and then progressively look at component elements;
 Highest level: cultural and social explanations of behaviour.
 Middle level: psychological (behavioural) explanations of behaviour.
 Lowest level: biological explanations of behaviour.

Question 26

Types of reductionism

Answer 26

Environmental reductionism argues that behaviour can be reduced to a simple relationship between behaviour and events. The complex emotion of attachment is reduced to a set of probabilities: the mother is likely to provide food which is reinforcing. Hence, she is a rewarding individual and so becomes a ‘loved one’.
Biological reductionism reduces human behaviour to the level of the action of neurons, neurotransmitters, hormones and so on. For example, it has been suggested that schizophrenia is caused by excessive activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine because drugs that block this neurotransmitter reduce schizophrenic symptoms.

Question 27

Holism

Answer 27

Holism focuses on systems as a whole rather than on the constituent parts, and suggests that we cannot predict how the whole system will behave just from knowledge of the individual components.

Question 28

Types of holism

Answer 28

The humanistic approach believes that the individual reacts as an organised whole, rather than a set of stimulus-response links. What matters is a person’s sense of a unified identity and thus a lack of identity or sense of ‘wholeness’ leads to a mental disorder

The cognitive approach recognises the importance of understanding an entire system. Memory is a complex system which in recent years has been understood in terms of connected networks. Each neuron is linked to many other neurons. These links develop through experience and with each new experience the links are strengthened or weakened. The network as a whole behaves differently than individual parts.

Question 29

Evaluation of reductionism (2p, 2n)

Answer 29

+ Both biological reductionism and environmental reductionism are viewed as scientific. Breaking complex behaviours into small constituent parts means that they can be scientifically tested and over time explanations of behaviour based on scientific evidence will emerge.

+ Biological reductionism has led to the development of biological therapies, such as drugs. For example, SSRIs are more effective than placebos at treating the symptoms of OCD and reduce the symptoms for up to three months after the treatment. The use of SSRIs in patients with OCD has helped to reduce the anxiety associated with OCD thus providing relief for some patients.

• Some psychologists argue that biological reductionism can lead to errors of understanding because it is simplistic and ignores the complex interaction of many factors in determining behaviour. For example, to treat conditions like ADHD with drugs in the belief that the condition consists of nothing more than neurochemical imbalances is to mistake the symptoms of the phenomenon for its true cause.
• Much of the research which supports environmental reductionism used non- human animals (e.g. Pavlov and Skinner). But is human behaviour simply a scaled- up version of that of dogs or rats? Critics of reductionism point to the social context in which humans are embedded from the earliest moments of life, and to hard-to-measure factors like cognition, emotion, and intentionality

Question 30

Idiographic approach

Answer 30

The idiographic approach involves the study of individuals and the unique insights each individual provides. The idiographic approach is qualitative because the focus is on studying unique individuals in-depth rather than gaining numerical data from many individuals and determining average characteristics. The focus is on quality of information rather than quantity. It is also qualitative because it employs qualitative methods such as unstructured interviews and case studies.

Question 31

Idiographic approach examples

Answer 31

The psychodynamic approach is seen as idiographic. Sigmund Freud used case studies of his patients as a way to understand human behaviour, such as the case study of Little Hans. Freud did make generalisations based on his case studies but they’re still idiographic because they are drawn from information gathered from unique individuals

The humanistic approach is also idiographic. Humanistic psychologists favour the idiographic approach because they are concerned with studying the whole person and seeing the world from the perspective of that person. What matters is the person’s subjective experience and not what someone else might observe

Question 32

Nomothetic approach

Answer 32

The nomothetic approach involves the study of a large representative sample, ideally selected using random sampling, in order to collect a large amount of data to support a testable hypothesis. The approach seeks to formulate general laws of behaviour that apply to everyone, this is also the goal of the scientific approach in Psychology. The nomothetic approach favours quantitative research methods that are based on numbers

Question 33

Examples of nomothetic approach

Answer 33

The biological approach seeks to portray the basic principles of how the body and brain work. In the past they have made the mistake of only studying men and assuming that their findings can be generalised to women e.g. the fight-or- flight response.

The behaviourist approach produces general laws of human behaviour. Behaviourist research may not have involved thousands of human participants, but they were seeking one set of rules for all human and non-human animals.

The cognitive approach is also nomothetic in its aim to develop general laws of behaviour which apply to all people, such as understanding memory processes. The cognitive approach does use case studies, such as HM and KF, but these are required because in order to understand the working of a normal mind it is often necessary to look at abnormal cases.

Question 34

Evaluation of idiographic approach (2p, 2n)

Answer 34

+ The great strength of the idiographic approach is that it provides rich and in- depth information about single cases, which the nomothetic approach is not able to do. Allport (1961) maintained that it is only by knowing a person as an indvidual that we can predict what they will do in any given situation.

+ Some elements of the idiographic approach, such as case studies and thematic analysis, are scientific and evidence based as well as seeking to be objective. Qualitative research methods use reflexivity to identify the influence of any bias. Reflexivity refers to the process where the researcher reflects or thinks critically during the research process about the factors that affect the behaviour of both the participants and the researcher

• The main criticism of the idiographic approach is that it is not very scientific, this is the main reason for the growth of positive psychology, because many considered the humanistic approach to not be sufficiently evidence based and therefore to be essentially meaningless. Positive psychology aims to be more evidence based.
• The idiographic approach is more time consuming and expensive than the nomothetic approach. Both approaches collect large amounts of data but the idiographic approach collects a large amount of data from one person and the nomothetic approach collects a small amount of data from a large amount of people. The latter is quicker because once a test or questionnaire has been designed it can be generated and processed quickly

Question 35

Socially sensitive research

Answer 35

Sieber and Stanley (1998) used the term socially sensitive to describe research where the topic area and/or group being studied can have implications for society or certain groups within society. Potentially, this research could lead to change in, or justification for, the way in which these groups are treated or perceived

Siber and Stanley (1998) identified four aspects in the scientific research process that raise ethical implications in socially sensitive research.

1. The Research Question: The researcher must consider their research question carefully. Asking questions such as ‘are their racial differences in intelligence’ or ‘is intelligence inherited’ may be damaging to members of a particular group.
2. The Methodology Used: The researcher needs to consider the treatment of the participant’s and their right to confidentiality and anonymity
3. The Institutional Context: The researcher should be mindful of how the data is going to be used and consider who is funding the research
4. Interpretation and Application of Findings: Finally, the researcher needs to consider how their findings might be interpreted and applied to the real-world

Sieber and Stanley also identified 10 thpes of ethical issues that relate to socially sensitive research, including privacy, confidentiality, deception and risk benefit ratio

Question 36

Socially sensitive research AO3 (3p, 2n)

Answer 36

+ Psychologists should conduct socially sensitive research because many groups in society have suffered the consequences of being excluded from research, or being misrepresented when they have been included. Our understanding of human behaviour has been lessened by misinterpretations and failure to represent certain groups within research (e.g. people with disabilities, the elderly, women, minority groups etc.). This has ethical implications because these people miss out on the benefits of psychological research.

+ Psychologists deal with ethical issues in socially sensitive research by developing ethical guidelines. However, ethical guidelines protect the immediate needs of participants but do not deal with all of the possible ways in which research may inflict harm on a group of people or section of society.

+ In order to reduce the likelihood that data is mishandled Psychologists should be energetic in taking responsibility for what happens to their findings. They should be aware that the results of their research may lead to abuse or discrimination.

• There are always some social consequences from psychological research, but with socially sensitive research there is always the increased potential for a more indirect impact on the group that the participant represents (e.g. addicts, women, the elderly etc.). It is not sufficient to simply safeguard the interests of individual participants.
• The issues with conducting socially sensitive research (like those highlighted above), are why some psychologists simply suggest that we should avoid conducting such research, and steer clear of sensitive topics, including ethnicity, gender and sexuality. Some psychologists believe that such research could have a negative impact for the participants.

Question 37

Ethical implications

Answer 37

the impact that psychological research may have on the rights of other people especially participants. This includes the influence of research in public policy and/or the way certain groups of people in society are perceived.

Question 38

Examples of studies with ethical implications

Answer 38

• Milgram’s obedience research and attitudes to people of different nationalities
Milgram attempted to prove the ‘Germans are different’ hypothesis by stating the American people when put in a situation where they are required to obey an authority figure (in this case a scientist) to give lethal electric shocks to another individual would not occur – in other words, no one would give lethal electric shocks to another individual. The fact that Milgram was making assumptions about the Germans as being obedient due to their authoritarian personalities has ethical implications since other nationalities might frown upon the Germans and see them as ‘bad’.

• Bowlby’s research and the effects on child-rearing/working mothers
Bowlby assumed that the PCG must by the mother or mother figure and must be with the infant in the critical period otherwise the child could suffer maternal deprivation which would lead to them possibly becoming affectionless psychopaths – this finding put undue pressure on mothers making them feel guilty going to work.

Question 39

Ethical implications AO3 (2p, 2n)

Answer 39

The main practical implication of the consideration of ethical implications is that it has led to research that is conducted in a much more sensitive manner, which has resulted in the protection of the health and dignity of participants, as well as the reputation of psychology. For example, experiments like Milgram’s and Zimbardo’s would not be carried out unless they were carefully controlled and not having any long lasting damaging effects on the participants.

By understanding the ethical implications of research, a cost-benefit analysis can be used to decide whether it is worth carrying out that piece of research. If the costs outweigh the benefits, then that research should not be carried out. However, if the costs outweigh the benefits and the research has no negative impact upon society, then it should be carried out.

• The ethical guidelines set for research permission are seen by some to be too strict. There are areas of research which could elicit helpful findings that could benefit a lot of people. However, the research cannot be conducted due to the research process potentially causing issues for the participants or researcher. Reaching a balance is therefore problematic.
• Sometimes it is not possible to see what the effects of research might be on the researcher, the participants and society. This makes it hard to judge. It is also not an objective decisions, so there is potential for bias from within the decision makers. This means that research (particularly socially sensitive research which has potential consequences for the treatment of certain groups in society) causes problems from time to time

Question 40

Evaluation of free will (3p, 1n)

Answer 40

One strength of free will is the idea that everyday experiences ‘ give the impression’ that we are constantly exercising free will through the choices we make – this gives face validity to the concept of free will.

Furthermore, research suggests that people who have an internal locus of control, believing that they have a high degree of influence over their own behaviour, tend to be more mentally healthy – this suggests that the concept of locus of control exercises free will.

Another strength of free will is its application to the legal system – legally all citizens are responsible for their actions at the age of 10 onwards. This suggests that we all have free will and are responsible and chose to be criminals which makes sense as if this was not the case then criminals would roam around free in society as they have no control or choice

One weakness of free will is that neurological studies of decision making have revealed evidence against free will – and slightly disturbing evidence of that! Studies by Chun Siong Soon et al (2008), have demonstrated that the brain activity that outcomes the outcome of simple choices may occur earlier than our knowledge of actually making that choice. In their study, the researchers found that the activity related to whether to press a button with the left or right hand occurs in the brain up to 10 seconds before participants report being consciously aware of making such a decision. This suggests that our decisions are determined before we even make them supporting a strong argument against free will
over their behaviour

Question 41

AO3 holism (2p, 2n)

Answer 41

A strength of holism is that there are aspects of social behaviour that can only emerge within a group context and cannot be understood by looking at analysing each group member -For example, conformity and de-individuation can only be studied by looking at the group behaviour as a whole and not the individuals

The holistic explanation attempts to blend different levels of explanation; holistic theory and approaches attempt to provide a complete and realistic understanding of human behaviour. It helps us to understand that a combination of treatments for schizophrenia such as family therapy, CBT and drugs would benefit the sufferer much more that just one specific treatment

Also, holistic explanations do not establish causation because they do not examine behaviour in terms of operationalised variables that can be manipulated and measured. This means that holistic explanations are viewed as unscientific. For example, what causes someone to become self actualised?

Question 42

Evaluate nomothetic approach