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research methods part 4/5 Flashcards

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1
Q

what does science allow us to do ?

A

make predictions and control the world

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2
Q

what are the 4 scientific methods that we can use in a study ?

A
  • empirical methods & objectivity
  • replicability and falsifiability
    -theory constructions & hypothesis testing
  • paradigms and paradigm shift
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3
Q

what is the aim with empirical methods ?

A

to gain facts

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4
Q

why is empirical methods important ?

A

because people can make ‘claims’ on anything but the only way we can verify it to be true is through direct testing

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5
Q

what produces empirical evidence ?

A

direct testing

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6
Q

what is objectivity ?

A

basing findings on facts rather then opinions

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7
Q

does something to be scientific need to be objective or subjective ?

A

objective

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8
Q

what is replicability ?

A

where we have the ability to repeat a study and test the findings aren’t just a ‘fluke’
- as if it isn’t a fluke then it is reliable

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9
Q

what is necessary for re-testing to happen similarly ?

A

clear standardised procedures

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10
Q

what is necessary for a scientific theory to be trusted ?

A

must be repeatable over a number of different context and circumstances

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11
Q

who created the theory that for a study to be truly scientific it needs to be falsifiability ?

A

karl popper (1934)

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12
Q

what does falsifiable mean ?

A

for a theory to be proven wrong

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13
Q

why is falsification good for a theory ?

A

as the more a hypothesis is able to stand up against this process the more likely it is to be true

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14
Q

what is a theory ?

A

is a set of general laws or rules to explain events or behaviours

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15
Q

what might a theory but put foward for ?

A

a particular behaviour

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16
Q

what does theory construction include ?

A

induction
deduction

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17
Q

what does the induction in theory construction resemeble ?

A

involves the reasoning from the particular to the general

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18
Q

what does the deduction theory resemble in theory theory construction ?

A

involves reasoning from the general to the particular

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19
Q

what does the theory construction form the basis of ?

A

of a hypothesis

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20
Q

what is a paradigm ?

A

a particular set of assumptions or a generally accepted way of thinking wishing a subject or discipline

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21
Q

what did Kuhn (1962) suggest about psychology and social sciences ?

A

that psychology and other social sciences are not scientific as they do not posse a single paradigm as they have a number of competing assumptions

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22
Q

how often did Kuhn suggest a paradigm shift happens ?

A

ever so often

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23
Q

what is a paradigm shift ?

A

where a new way of thinking takes over

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24
Q

when would a paradigm shift happen ?

A

once enough evidence emerges to challenge the current paradigm

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25
Q

what is a case study ?

A

an in-depth investigation of a single person, group or event, community

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26
Q

how is case studies typically gathered ?

A

gathering data in a variety of ways/ sources from different methods

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27
Q

what are the 3 key features of a case study ?

A
  • qualitative data
  • quantitative data
  • likely to be conducted over a long period of time
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28
Q

how does the researcher gather quantitative data ?

A

potential experimental testing

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29
Q

what does the researcher use qualitative data for ?

A

to construct a case history of the subject

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30
Q

what is 2 examples of a caste study ?

A
  • Phineas Cage
  • Genie Wiley
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31
Q

what are 2 strengths of case studies ?

A
  • rich, detailed information that focuses on 1 person
  • useful at contributing to our understanding of ‘normal’ behaviour
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32
Q

what are 2 weaknesses to case studies ?

A
  • case studies only focus on one person or very small numbers
  • they rely on personal accounts of behaviours and experiences
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33
Q

what is content analysis ?

A

a type of analysis of any from of communication that people produce

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34
Q

why for content analysis are people studies are indirectly ?

A

because its their communication that’s studies rather than the person themselves

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35
Q

what type of data is used for content analysis ?

A
  • qualitative
  • quantitative
  • or both
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36
Q

what are examples of communication that can be studies for content analysis ?

A
  • emails
  • text messages
  • tv programmes
  • films
  • newspapers
  • magazines
  • presentations
  • interviews
  • conversations
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37
Q

what is the aim of content analysis ?

A

summarise and describe the information in a systematic way so we can draw conclusion

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38
Q

what process is content analysis similar too ?

A

observation studies
- but observe books instead of people

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39
Q

what does the researcher create in stage 1 ?

A

quantitative data

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39
Q

what is the first stage in conducting content analysis include ?

A

coding

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40
Q

what does the researcher do in the first stage of content analysis ?

A

researcher creates behavioural categories

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41
Q

what does the researcher do with the data after from stage 1 ?

A

the researcher categories the data into meaningful units

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42
Q

what does the second stage of content analysis include ?

A

thematic analysis

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43
Q

what 2 things need to be taken into consideration during content analysis ?

A
  • the sampling methods
  • how the data should be recorded
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43
Q

what is the idea of the second stage of content analysis ?

A

to get some kind of order from the data
- it allows you to summarise and reduce the data

44
Q

what does the second stage of content analysis create ?

A

qualitative data

45
Q

what can the researcher do in content analysis once the data has been coded ?

A

they can then identify themes

46
Q

what is a theme in content analysis ?

A

a theme is something that keep ‘cropping up’ and can only really be done once the data has been coded
- allows you to draw conclusions

47
Q

what are the 2 strengths to content analysis ?

A
  • can get around ethical issues that may exists with other methods
  • practical application
    -material already exists so can be replicable
47
Q

what are 2 weakness for content analysis ?

A
  • people are studied indirectly
  • also an issue with culture bias
48
Q

what does validity mean ?

A

how accurately a method measures what it is intended to measure

49
Q

what are the 2 types of validity ?

A
  • internal
  • external
50
Q

what does internal validity relate too ?

A

whether the results can be attributed to the other effects of the manipulated variable alone rather than to any other ‘nuisance’ variables
- IV should be the only thing that affects the DV so we can establish the cause and effect

51
Q

what is internal validity affected by ?

A
  • whether or not the measures taken or tasks used were actually testing what they were supposed to text
52
Q

what can allow a study to have low internal validity ?

A
  • demand characteristics
  • order effects
  • bias
  • confounding variables
53
Q

what are 2 types of external validity ?

A
  • ecological
  • temporal
54
Q

what is ecological validity ?

A

can the findings be generalised beyond the setting in which the study was performed

55
Q

what is mundane realism ?

A

is the study like ‘real life’

56
Q

what is temporal validity ?

A

refers to how relevant the time period is in affecting the findings

57
Q

what are 2 ways to assess validity ?

A
  • face validity
  • concurrent validity
58
Q

what is face validity ?

A

looking at a measure/ test/ scale and deciding ‘on the face of it’ if it is valid
- so ask an expert to look over it
- degree to which a measure appears to be measuring what it is intended to measure

59
Q

what is concurrent validity ?

A

measures the extent to which a measurement is confirmed by a related measurement

60
Q

what are 3 ways to improve an experiments validity ?

A
  • use a control group
  • use standardised procedures
  • use double blind procedures
61
Q

what are 2 ways to improve questionnaires validity ?

A
  • use a lie scale
  • maintain anonymity
62
Q

what is a way to improve observations validity ?

A
  • use covert, naturalistic observations
63
Q

what are 2 ways to improve qualitative methods validity ?

A
  • use direct quotes
  • use triangulation
64
Q

what does reliability mean ?

A

the degree to which research methods can produce consistent and stable results

65
Q

what can you describe a measure that can be repeated ?

A

reliable

66
Q

what are the 2 ways to asses reliability ?

A
  • test re-test
  • inter-observer reliability
67
Q

what is the test re-test method ?

A

they do it once then tested again on a different occasion
- some time will be in-between but not too long to avoid changes in attitudes and behaviours

68
Q

what correlation coefficient is needed to say the tool has test re-test and inter-observer reliability ?

A

0.8 or higher

69
Q

what is inter-observer reliability ?

A

if there is more than 1 observer you need to make sure they’re interpretating the events the same
- as need to avoid/ reduce subject interpretations

70
Q

how do you make sure that experiments are more likely to be reliable ?

A
  • use lab experiments as the researcher can control many variables that may affect the outcome
71
Q

what can help make questionnaires more reliable ?

A

if the test re-test correlation is lower then 0.8 than some questions may need to be change or all

72
Q

what can help make observations more reliable ?

A

by making sure behavioural categories have been operationalized

73
Q

what can help make qualitative data more reliable ?

A
  • use the same trained interviewer and use structured interviews to avoid leading questions and have more control on psychologist behaviour
74
Q

what is another name for the alternative hypothesis ?

A

directional or non-directional hypothesis

75
Q

do we want to falsify the null hypothesis or not ?

A

yes

76
Q

what do we use statistical tests for ?

A

to work out whether a difference is due to chance or a real different

77
Q

what does chance refer too ?

A

something with no cause it just happens

78
Q

what number is sued to determine if the results are statistically significant or not ?

A

calculated value

79
Q

what is a large impact as to why the psychologist can never be 100% certain ?

A

due to individual differences

80
Q

what does ‘significant at p<0.05’ ?

A
81
Q

what are the 2 errors that can be made ?

A
  • type 1
  • type 2
82
Q

what is a type 1 error ?

A

when it is too lenient
- the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative is accepted when it should’ve been the other way round
- eg) using 0.1 chance it is a fluke

83
Q

what is a type 2 error ?

A

when it is too strict
- the alternative hypothesis is rejected and the null is accepted but it should’ve been the other way round
- eg) using a 1% chance the result is a fluke

84
Q

what are the 3 D’s in deciding which statistical test to use ?

A
  • design
  • difference
  • data
85
Q

what are the 2 types of test to look out for in statistical tests ?

A
  • difference
  • correlation
86
Q

what are the 3 designs to look out for in a statistical test ?

A
  • independent group
  • repeated measure
  • matched pairs
87
Q

what are the 2 related designs for a stats test ?

A
  • matched pairs
  • repeated measure
88
Q

what is the unrelated design for a stats test ?

A
  • independent group
89
Q

what are the 3 ways data can be measured ?

A
  • nominal
  • ordinal
  • interval
90
Q

what is nominal data ?

A

data in categories

91
Q

what is ordinal data ?

A

data that can ordered in some way
- doesn’t need to have equal intervals
- lack precision as based on opinion
- not measuring something real as an opinion

92
Q

what is interval data ?

A
  • based on ‘real’ numerical scale with units of measurement that is clearly defined
  • eg) temp, time, height, weight
93
Q

what data is a parametric test for ?

A

interval

94
Q

when is parametric tests used ?

A

when the data is from a population which can be assumed to be normally distributed data which has a ‘homogeneity of variance’

95
Q

what does ‘homogeneity of variance’ mean ?

A

similar dispersion

96
Q

what are the 3 D’s for the Chi squared for difference ?

A
  • difference
  • unrelated
  • nominal
97
Q

what are the 3 D’s for the Mann-Whitney ?

A
  • difference
  • unrelated
  • ordinal
98
Q

what are the 3 D’s for the Unrelated t test ?

A
  • difference
  • unrelated
  • interval
99
Q

what are the 3 D’s for the Related t test ?

A
  • difference
  • related
  • interval
100
Q

what are the 3 D’s for the Sign test ?

A
  • difference
  • related
  • nominal
101
Q

what are the 3 D’s for the Wilcoxon ?

A
  • difference
  • related
  • ordinal
102
Q

what are the 2 D’s for the Chi- squared for a correlation ?

A
  • correlation
  • nominal
103
Q

what are the 2 D’s for the Spearman’s Rho ?

A
  • correlation
  • ordinal
104
Q

what are the 2 D’s for the Pearson’s r ?

A
  • correlation
  • interval
105
Q

what statistical test mean the calculated value need to be equal to or greater than the critical value ?

A
  • spearman’s Rho
  • chi squared
  • pearson’s R
  • unrelated tests
  • related tests
106
Q

what statistical test mean the calculated value need to be equal to or less than the critical value ?

A
  • Mann Whitney
  • Wilcoxon
  • Sign test
107
Q

what is the rule of ‘R’ ?

A

if there is an R in the name then the calculated value needs to be greater than the critical value

108
Q
A

psychology (12 decks)

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