approaches Flashcards
who is the father of psychology ?
Wilhelm wundt
what institute did Wundt open ?
the institute for experiment psychology
- at the uni of Leipzig in Germany in 1879
what did Wilhelm Wundt do to philosophy ?
he separated psychology from it
how did Wilhelm Wundt separate psychology from philosophy ?
he did it by analysing the workings of a mind in a more structured way
- emphasis being on objective measurement and control
what did Wilhelm Wundt believe in ?
reductionism
what is reductionism ?
that consciousness could be broken down or reduced to its basic element without sacrificing any of the properties as a whole
what did Wilhelm Wundt study ?
introspection
what is introspection ?
‘looking within’
was introspection the 1st experimental attempt to study the mind ?
yes it was
- include breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thought, images and sensations
what was Wundt threefold aims for introspection ?
- analyse the content of conscious experiences
- determine how elements of the conscious mind are connected
- devise a law to explain such connections
what did Wundt claim about introspection ?
that with sufficient training some mental processes can be observed
- memory
- perception
what are 2 strengths to Wundt’s idea of introspection ?
- further investigations can be carried out as controlled settings
- replication is allowed in his research
what are 2 weaknesses for Wundt’s idea of introspection ?
- conscious thoughts and mental processes can’t be measured and observed
- introspection isn’t accurate
what decade did psychoanalysis emerge ?
1900s
what year did behaviourism emerge ?
1913
what decade did humanism emerge ?
1950s
what decade did the learning approach emerge ?
1960s
what decade did the biological approach emerge ?
1980s
when did cognitive neuroscience emerge ?
eve of the 21st century
what are the 5 different scientific methods in psychology ?
- replicability
- systematic
- objectivity
- theory construction
- peer review
what is replicability ?
ability to repeat a study and achieve consistent findings
what does systematic mean ?
phenomenon which can be observed, use scientific testing like using experimental methods with standard procedures
what is objectivity ?
basing findings on facts rather than an opinion
what is theory construction ?
offering a testable hypothesis which can be rigorously tested
what is peer review ?
process used to check the work performance by one’s equal to ensure it meets the specific criteria
- being subject to independent scrutiny by other psychologist who are experts in the field which happens prior to publication
what are the 3 learning assumptions ?
- all behaviour learned from the environment so…if all behaviour is learnt it can therefore be unlearnt
-animals share the same principles in learning behaviour therefore…valid to study them - behaviourists approach says we are a ‘tabula rosa’…blank slate upon which experience is written on
what is classical conditioning ?
learning through association
- 2 stimulus are paired together to produce a learnt response
who first demonstrated classical conditioning ?
Ivan Pavlov
what did Pavlov reveal about classical conditioning ?
dogs can be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell
if that sound was repeatedly presented at the same time dogs where given food
what is a stimulus ?
any feature of the environment that affects behaviour
what is a response ?
the behaviour elicited by the stimulus
what are the 3 stages called that are involved in classical conditioning ?
- before
- during
- after
what happens in stage 1 of classical conditioning ?
UCS produces a UCR
- response isn’t learnt, it is reflex
- also involves the NS but it doesn’t cause a response
what happens in stage 2 of classical conditioning ?
NS is paired with UCS on a number of occasions
which creates the UCR
what happens in stage 3 of classical conditioning ?
NS becomes CS and the UCR becomes CR
when can you tell when learning has taken place in classical conditioning ?
learning has taken place when the NS elicits a response which used to occur when the UCS was presented
what are the 2 strengths of classical conditioning ?
- supporting evidence from Watson and Rayner’s study on little albert
- practical application in aversion therapy
what is the 1 weaknesses of classical conditioning ?
it is reductionist as reduces complex behaviours
what is operant conditioning ?
learning by consequence/ reinforcement
what did Thorndike’s (1898) describe about OC ?
- a behaviour resulting in a pleasant outcome tends to be repeated
- a behaviour followed by a bad consequence are not
what is Skinners’ involvement in operant conditioning ?
he believed that the best way to understand behaviour is to look at the cause of an action and its consequence
- argues ‘we shape the behaviour we require’
what is positive reinforcement ?
something pleasant which you receive for a behaviour which increases the likelihood of the behaviour happening again
what is negative reinforcement ?
the removal of something unpleasant which will increase the likelihood of a behaviour happening again
what does extinction mean ?
the dying out of a conditioned response by breaking the association between the CS and the UCS
what is spontaneous recovery ?
the return of a conditioned response (in a weaker form) after a period of time
what are the 5 things in skinners reinforcement schedule ?
- continuous reinforcement
- fixed interval schedule
- variable internal schedule
- fixed ratio schedule
-variable ratio schedule
what is continuous reinforcement ?
-pattern/rate of response
- resistance to extinction
-very low but steady
-very low- quickest way
what is fixed interval schedule ?
-pattern/rate of response
- resistance to extinction
- speeds up as the next reinforcement becomes as a pause after each reinforcement
- rate = fairly low
- fairly low
what is variable interval schedule ?
- pattern/rate of response
- resistance to extinction
- very stable over long periods of time can increase as time elapse
-very high- very slow and gradual
what is fixed ratio schedule ?
- pattern/rate of response
- resistance to extinction
- pronounced pause after each reinforcement but very high rate
- fairly low
what is variable ratio schedule ?
- pattern/rate of response
- resistance to extinction
- very high and very steady
- very high- most resistant
what is 2 strengths to operant conditioning ?
- research that supports it is skinner
- practical application for people struggling with their mental wellbeing
what are 2 weaknesses of operant conditioning ?
- some of the research like Skinner has ethical issues
- research can be deemed to lack ecological validity
what are the 2 strengths of the behaviourist approach ?
- influential in encouraging the use of animals as research subjects
- made important contributions to our modern understanding of human mental illness
what are the 2 weaknesses of the behaviourist approach ?
- many consider using animals in experiments as unethical
- criticised for its limits view regarding the origins of behaviour
how do we learn according too social learning theory ?
observations and imitation of a model
- proposes any behaviour is learned through direct experiences or by vicarious indirect experiences
what characteristics do the model of a SLT have ?
- reinforced for the behaviour
- identify with the model like same sex
- likely to be respected
when is imitation more likely to occur ?
if the model is positively reinforced
and if u identify with the model
do we believe we are able to imitate the behaviour which has been observed ?
yes
what is vicarious reinforcement ?
type of observational learns that occurs when someone imitates a model’s behaviour after observing the model receive positive reinforcement
what is self- efficacy ?
the belief you have about your ability to perform a behaviour
what happens to the likelihood with a higher self-belief ?
you are more likely to imamate the behaviour of the model
what are the 4 mediational factors Bandura created ?
- attention
- retention
- reproduction
- motivation
what is mediational factors ?
cognitive factors that influence learning and the likelihood of copying behaviour
what is the attention in the mediational factors ?
for a behaviour to be imitated it has to draw attention
- it influences if we imitate or not as some behaviours we observe aren’t worth observing
what is the retention in the mediational factors ?
the memory of the behaviour needs to be formed to be remembered and performed later on
- especially as SL isn’t always repeated immediately so it is vital to form a memory as needed to have a memory to refer too
what is the reproduction in the mediational factors ?
we are limited by our physical ability
- can’t always reproduce the behaviour as limited as we would like to be able to imitate a lot of behaviour but not always going to happen
what is the motivation in the mediational factors ?
rewards and punishments that follow the behaviour will be considered by the observer
- if the perceived rewards outweigh the perceived costs that more likely to be imitated by the observer.
what happens if vicarious reinforcement isn’t seen as important ?
the observer may not imitate the behaviour
what is a strength of the Bandura bobo doll study ?
it is was a highly controlled study
what is a weakness of the Bandura bobo doll study ?
it was carried out in an artificial environment
what is the cognitive approach is concerned with ?
how thinking shapes out behaviour
what do cognitive psychologist suggest for behaviour to be fully understood ?
the events within a person that must be studied
what are the 3 assumptions of the cognitive approach ?
- study of the internal mental process
- role of the schema
- use of the theoretical and computer models to explain and make inferences about mental process
what are 4 process that are within the internal process examination ?
perception
memory
attention
consciousness
- must be inferred from observations
what does cognitive psychologist believe about the internal mental process ?
it can studied in an objective way and that insight into mental processes may be inferred from behaviour
why do cognitive psychologists make use of theoretical and computer models ?
to enable visual representation of complex conceptual models
what does the study of the internal mental process assume ?
it sees humans as information processers
what is cognitve main concern with the internal model ?
how information is received from our sense is processed by the brain and how this processing directs how we behave
what do we infer behaviour from ?
information we have which is usually from experience
what is the internal mental processes ?
the operations which occur during thinking
what are the 5 operations that occur during thinking ?
- perception
- attention
- memory
- language
- problem-solving
what is the perception operation in the internal mental process ?
info from the eyes into a visual form
what is the attention operation in the internal mental process ?
how we choose what to think about
what is the memory operation in the internal mental process ?
how we store information to use in the future
what is the language operation in the internal mental process ?
how we construct sentences to communicate with others
what is the problem-solving operation in the internal mental process ?
how we construct new solutions
what is the role of the internal working model ?
perception also can be useful as we perceive a person in a specific way which can determine if you’re more likely to get in a romantic relationship with them or not
what is a schema ?
a mental framework/ structure which contains knowledge based on experience and culture
- it organises information and acts as a guide to behaviour
when are schemas learnt ?
from a young age
how do schema’s save time ?
they help make shortcuts when organising and interpretating new or large pieces of information rapidly
- therefore prevents us from being overwhelmed by environment stimuli
what happens once a schema is learnt ?
individuals tend to pay more attention that is relevant or agrees with their schema and ignore information that may challenge their pre-existing schemas
what type of bias can schemas be ?
attentional and selective bias
- as they effect what we notice
what happens to are schema’s the more we get older ?
they become more sophisticated
how can your schema become refined ?
later in life experiences due to new experiences and interactions
why don’t schemas necessarily represent reality ?
as they are often put together due to social exchanges rather than personal interactions
what is the halo effect ?
the tendency to allow one specific trait or overall impression of a person, company or product to positively influence our judgements of their other related traits
what information does children remember more ?
remember gender consistent information better than information that challenges their gender
what are the 2 bad areas of a schema ?
- can lead to errors in information-processing such as prejudice and discrimination as if it doesn’t fit the schema it can be ignored or distorted
- tend to only attend info that fits their schema
what does the 3rd assumption say about computers and our minds ?
that are minds act like a computer and our minds processes act as a computer software
- human eyes sees, encodes and transform if into a decision
what is the theoretical model ?
simplified, objective and descriptive representations of how our minds might work
what are computer models ?
the mind is compared to a computer suggesting there are similarities in the way the information is processed and solved
what do computer models help explain in psychology ?
the different mental processes
what is the analogy of the mind which is compared to a computer ?
LTM= hard disk
STM= computers RAM
what is cognitive neuroscience ?
the scientific study of the influence of brain structure, function and chemistry on cognitive mental process as they’re responsible for it
what have the the new rapid advances in technology allowed neuroscientist to do ?
study the living brain and localise areas of the brain associated with the specific cognition
- PET scans and FMRI scans
what do sufferers with OCD have ?
elevated levels of activity in the orbitofrontal cortex and caudate nucleus
what are the 2 strengths to the cognitive approaches ?
- emphasis of employing scientific methodology
- many real world applications
what are the 3 weaknesses of the cognitive approach ?
- it uses inferences
- it is accused of being machine reductionist
- some suggest neuroimaging is correlational
what is the biological approach ?
the way of understanding human behaviour by studying the physical basis of the body, including the brain, NS, IS and genetics
- must look at biological structures and processes
what are the 2 assumptions to the biological approach ?
- evolution on behaviour
- genetic influence
do all are thoughts, feelings and behaviour have a physical basis ?
yes
what was the principle the Charles Darwin natural selection ?
any behaviour that benefits a species and helps it to reproduce will continue in future generations
can some animals be bred to have certain desirable characteristics ?
yes and in nature this process is natural
- it gives a species an advantage
- they survive and pass it onto their offspring
what is a genotype ?
the actual make-up of their genes
what is a phenotype ?
the way their genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics
how is the expression of genotype inevitably expressed ?
through environmental factors
why can identical twins look different ?
have the same genes but have been expressed differently through their phenotype
what do many biopsychologist believe about human behaviour ?
that it depends on interactions between inherited factors (nature) and the environment (nuture)
what are monozygotic twins ?
100% identical genes
- 1 egg fertilised
what are dizygotic twins ?
50% identical genes
- 2 eggs fertilised
what is a concordance rate for twins ?
refers to the extent to which a pair of twins share similar traits or characteristics
what is a heterozygous gene ?
the genotype consists of 2 different genes
what is a homozygous gene ?
the genotype consists of 2 genes that are the same
what has selective breeding been used to demonstrate ?
how a number of behavioural characteristics may have a genetic basis
what is selective breeding ?
artificially selecting male and male reproduces for a particular trait
- then put together to breed and produce offspring
what are females more particular about in a relationship ?
about who the farther of their children is due to the investment they have to make
- want mates that will have resources to provide for their offspring
what are males more particular about in a relationship ?
attractive as an indication of fertility and reproductive value
what are 2 strengths for the biological approach ?
- adopts scientific methods and uses objective measures largely
- real world application
what are the 4 assumptions of the psychodynamic approach ?
- unconscious mind
- importance of early childhood experiences
- personality is made up of 3 parts (tripartite)
- personality shapes
what does the psychodynamic approach explain ?
that behaviours is as a result of different forces
what it is the importance in early childhood experiences assumption ?
that are behaviour and feelings as an adult is rooted from our childhood experiences
- can have life-long effects on the individual
what was Freud metaphor to describe the mind ?
he used an iceberg metaphor
- the tip is the conscious mind
- just below the surface is the pre-conscious mind
- and the rest below the surface is the unconscious mind
what is the 3 parts of the mind ?
- conscious mind
- pre-conscious mind
- unconscious mind
what is the conscious mind ?
the small amount of mental activity we know about
what is the pre-conscious mind ?
things we could be aware of if we wanted or tried or triggered
what is the unconscious mind ?
things we are unaware of and can not become aware
what did Freud believe the 2 basic drives which motivate all our behaviours are ?
- eros
- thants
what is physic determinism ?
unconscious forces and drives are inborn and control or determine behaviour
- all we say and do has a cause
what is most of are behaviour and personality driven by ?
unconscious forces in our mind
what 3 things does the unconscious mind contain ?
- biological drives
- instincts
- threatening and disturbing memories that have been locked away
what are 2 ways you can access the unconscious mind ?
- dream analysis
- free association
what is dream analysis ?
a therapist will interpret the dreams to provide insight about what the dream actually represents
what is latent content ?
the hidden meaning or unconscious desires that are present in dreams. fantasies, or other form of communication
what is manifest content ?
concept in a dream analysis that refers to the element of a dream that a person remembers after waking up
what is more likely to appear in are dreams then when awake ?
repressed ideas in the unconsious
what is free association ?
the individual is encouraged to relax and say anything that comes into their minds
- the therapist will interpret and explain once the conflict is bought into consciousness once verbalised
what is the idea behind free association ?
the idea is the ego will be unable of keeping check of the threatening unconscious mind
what is a ‘slip of the tongue’ ?
it is slips of the tongue which may reveal what is really in our mind
what is the importance of early childhood experiences ?
our behaviour and feelings as adults are rooted in our childhood experiences
- can have a life-long effect on the individual
what is motivated forgetting ?
childhood memories may not be able to be recalled
- so this happens to help prevent us from remembering traumatic memoires
what are the 3 structures to personality ?
- id
- ego
- superego
when is the id present ?
from birth
what is the principle that the id acts from ?
pleasure principle
what is the id for ?
it represents a persons ‘s instinctual, basic drives related to sex and aggression
- it is our instinct
- we want instant gratification
what does the id spring from ?
eros and thantos
what is eros ?
the life instinct
- which is fuelled by psychic energy called libido
when does the ego develop ?
around 2
what is the egos role ?
has to decide between the demands of the id and the superego
what principle does the ego operate under ?
the reality principle
why does the ego control the id ?
it controls the ids drive for immediate satisfaction until an appropriate outlet can be found
when may abnormal behaviour occur ?
if the balance between id and superego isn’t achieved
why does the ego have to manage the id and superego ?
as in constant conflict
when does the superego develop ?
at 5+
what principle does the superego act under ?
the morality principle
what r the 2 divisions of the superego ?
- ego ideal
- conscience
what is the ego-ideal ?
the standards of good behaviour that we aspire to
what is the conscience ?
it is seen as the inner voice that tells us when we have done something wrong
what is the superego perceived as ?
it is seen as the source of rewards
what is a strength of the personality theory ?
evidence of defence mechanism is Williams as it makes cognitive sense that all babes are born with a drive to survive
what is a weakness for the personality theory ?
it is unfalsifiable as cant measure the concept
why are defence mechanism developed ?
to manage the demand of the id and superego
why can the ego get stressful ?
if constant conflict which constantly needs to do work
what is the role of the defence mechanism ?
to help protect the ego from getting too overwhelmed
why in the long term is defence mechanism bad ?
as they work unconsciously and distort reality
what are the 3 defence mechanisms ?
- repression
- displacement
- denial
what is repression ?
unconsciously forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind
what is denial ?
refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality
what is displacement ?
transferring feelings from the true source of the distressing emotion to a substitute
what are the 5 psychosexual stages ?
- oral
- anal
- phallic
- latent
- genital
what age is the oral stage ?
0-1
what source of pleasure for the oral phase ?
the mouth
what is the main influence for the oral phase ?
- deprivation of love or food
- early weaning
what is the consequence of fixation ?
- sarcasm
- smoking
- biting nails
what age is the anal stage ?
1-3
what is the source of pleasure for the anal stage ?
the anus
what is the main influence of the anal stage ?
- lax toilet training
- harsh toilet training
what is the consequences of fixation of the anal phase ?
- obsessiveness
- tidiness
- meanness
what age does the phallic stage occur ?
3-5
what is the source of pleasure in the phallic stage ?
the genital area
what is the main influence of the phallic stage ?
- very dominant mother
- no father figure
what is the consequences of fixation in the phallic stage ?
- self obsession- m
- sexual anxiety- m
- envies– w
what age does the latent stage happen ?
5-puberty
what is the source of pleasure for the latent stage ?
sexual drives are repressed
what happens as the main influence in the latent stage ?
the child will repress all what has happened previously
- focus on adjusting to the environment
does fixation happen in the latent stage ?
no
what age does the genital stage happen ?
12+
what is the main influence in the genital stage ?
the sexual drives from the id are re-awoken
- remainder of adult life is dedicated to the pursuit of sex
should fixation happen at the genital stage ?
yes it should as indicates a well-adjusted adult
what happens if a psychosexual stage isn’t resolved ?
fixation occurs
- where a child becomes stuck and carries certain behaviours and characteristics with them into adult personality
what is the psychosexual stages ?
the sexual energy builds up and is expressed in different ways and through different parts of the body
what is the Oedipus conflict ?
the boy wants to sexually posses and desire his mother
- and he thinks if his father finds out what he most loved will be taken away
- which in phallic phases is his penis so fears castration
how does the boy overcome the Oedipus complex ?
by imitating, copying and joining in masculine behaviour
what is the Electra complex ?
where girls briefly desire their father but realises she doesn’t have a penis so wishes to be a boy and have one
how do girls overcome the Electra complex ?
by repressing her desire for her father and substituting the wish for a penis with the wish for a baby
- blames mother for castrated state so tension
what is a strength to the psychosexual stages ?
supporting evidence by the case study ‘little Hans’
- as around ages 3-5 the boy developed a fear of castration
what is a weakness for the psychosexual stages ?
lack of reliability as all the studies like little Hans has ethical issues and investigator/gender bias and lacks validity
what is 2 strengths to the psychodynamic approach ?
- ground breaking that our childhood experiences can affect our lives
- Freud was first to stress the importance of psychological factors causing abnormal behaviour
what is a limitation of the psychodynamic approach ?
that is is largely unfalsifiable
what are the 4 approaches to the humanistic approach ?
- every individual in unique
- free will
- holism
- the scientific method is not a good way to measure behaviour
what is the every individual is unique assumption about ?
we are all different so no point in trying to generalise to groups as there are so many different within each groups
- we are individuals and should be treated as such
what does the free will assumption mean ?
that we have ultimate ability to choose what we do and we are in control of our behaviour
- acknowledges we have constraints on our free will but maintains that ultimately if we want to do something we have the ability to choose to do it
what does the holism assumption mean ?
no point in looking at just one aspect of an individual
what is the scientific method is not a good way to measure behaviour assumption ?
don’t consider the humanistic approach to be scientific
- humans are subjective in the way they think and behaviour so need to be less objective so scientific method is inappropriate
what does Maslow’s approach focus on ?
focused on finding out what could go right with them
what does Maslow’s hierarchy of needs focus on ?
personal growth and fulfilment
what are the 5 needs in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs ?
- physiological
- safety
- love/ belonging
- esteem
- self-actualization
what has to happen before an induvial has to meet self-actualisation ?
all lower levels of the hierarchy needs to be met beforehand before an individual can work towards self-actualization and fulfil their potential
what characteristics do individuals share if they’ve reached self-actualisation ?
- creativity
- accurate perception of the world
- free of all inhibition
- fear and acceptance of all others
what is personal growth concerned with ?
developing and changing as a person to become fulfilled, satisfied and goal-orientated
what do humanistic psychologists regard personal growth as ?
an essential part of what it is to be human
what is free will ?
ability to act at one’s own discretion
what is self-actualisation ?
desire to grow psychologically and fulfils ones full potential
what is congruence ?
the match/ consistency between the perceived self and the ideal self
what is unconditional positive regard ?
love and acceptance given by others is unconditional
- they are accepted regardless of what they say and what they do
what is conditions of worth ?
conditions that significant others put upon the individual and they must achieve these if they are to be accepted or loved
what is the self ?
our personal identity
what are the 3 selves rogers suggested ?
- the self concept
- the ideal self
- the real self
what is the self concept ?
the self you feel you are
what is the ideal self ?
the self you wish to be
what is the real self ?
the person you actually are
what did rogers believe that needs to happen to reach self-actualisation ?
- important for the person to be fully functioning
- that we have three selves that need to integrate to achieve self-actualisation
how does how we feel about ourselves depend on ?
being valued and respected by other people
if unconditional positive regard is given what does it develop ?
- a healthy sense of self-worth
- recognising their abilities and difficulties
what does having closer self concept and ideal self mean ?
greater the congruence
what does incongruence reflect ?
an inconsistency between self-concept and experiences relating to self
how do you improve gap between the ideal self and self concept ?
revising their self-concept towards congruence
- CCT
what are the 3 core conditions of CCT ?
- congruence
- empathy
- unconditional positive regard
what does CCT operate under ?
3 basic principles that reflects the attitude of the therapist to the client
how is their congruence in CCT ?
- most important part
- therapist doesn’t have a façade and is authentic
how is there UPR in CCT ?
therapists should always maintain a positive attitude to the client even if disgusted by their actions
how is their empathy in CCT ?
- need to communicate with client they understand how they feel
- be sensitive towards them
