Research Methods Lessons 1 - 5 Experimental Methods, Interviews Aims And Hypothesis

Question 1

What is the independent variable?

Answer 1

the variable that the researcher manipulates in order to determine its effect on the dependent variable.

The independent variable may be divided into levels, sometimes referred to as experimental conditions.

Question 2

What is the control condition

Answer 2

To provide a standard against which experimental conditions can be compared, there may be a control condition where the IV is not manipulated at all

Question 3

What is the dependent variable

Answer 3

The variable being measured

Question 4

What is the extraneous variable,e

Answer 4

These are any variables other than the IV that COULD affect the DV.

Question 5

What is the confounding variable

Answer 5

These are any variables (other than the IV) that HAVE affected the DV.

Examples include light and noise

Question 6

What is operationalism

Answer 6

For an experiment to be successful, the dependent and independent variables must be operationalised

Therefore the variables need to be defined and stated how it will be measured.

Question 7

What are laboratory experiments

Answer 7

This is when an experiment is carried out in a controlled environment

It allows the researcher to exert a high level of control over the IV and eliminate any EV.

The researcher can observe and measure the change in the DV caused by their manipulation of the IV.

Participants are randomly allocated to a condition. This means neither the experimenter nor the participants decides which condition the participant is placed in.

The other variables than an experimenter wants to hold constant are called extraneous variables. The aim of controlling EVs is to minimize their possible impact on the results of the investigation.

Laboratory experiments are conducted in an artificial setting.

Question 8

What are the advantages of lab experiments?

Answer 8

1) A strength is that laboratory experiments have a very high level of control over the IV and conditions. Therefore it is very easy to control for any extraneous variables and prevent them from becoming confounding variables which might affect the measurements or data collected.

2) A strength is that the researcher can manipulate the independent variable and can establish a cause and effect relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable.

3) A strength is that a laboratory experiment can be easily replicated by other researchers to see if similar results can be obtained. If the findings are similar to the original study than the results are reliable (the study can be conducted repeatedly with the same results being found each time which means the results are not due to chance or confounding variables).

Question 9

What are the disadvantages of lab experiments

Answer 9

1) A disadvantage of laboratory experiments is that demand characteristics might occur within the study. This is where the participants in the study might guess what the aim of the study is and therefore change their behaviour accordingly which means the data becomes invalid. Some participants behave in a more positive light than normal and this can be called, social desirability bias

2) A disadvantage of laboratory experiments is that establishing a high level of control over the independent variables and extraneous variables, means that the experimental situation can often lack mundane realism (the extent to which an experiment reflects real life). This means the laboratory study does not have ecological validity (the ability to generalise the findings of a piece of research to real life situations or other places/contexts).

Question 10

What are field experiments?

Answer 10

an experiment carried out in the real world or in a natural setting rather than in the artificial setting of a laboratory. The independent variable is still manipulated or controlled by the researcher to see the effect on the dependent variable.

Question 11

What are the advantages of field experiments

Answer 11

1) A strength of a field experiment is that there is more mundane realism and ecological validity than in a laboratory, and it reflects real life more than a laboratory experiment.
2) An advantage of a field study is that because the researcher can manipulate the independent variable; a cause and effect relationship between the independent and the dependent variable can be established.
3) An advantage of field experiment is that there is less chance of demand characteristics as opposed to a laboratory experiment. In a field experiment the participants might not even be aware that they are taking part in research and so they will behave more naturally and more valid data will be collected

Question 12

What are the disadvantages of field experiments

Answer 12

1) A disadvantage is that there is less control over extraneous variables when compared to a laboratory experiment. Therefore the effect on the dependent variable may not be caused by the independent variable but by extraneous variables. This means the research is not valid (it is not measuring what it intends to measure).

2) A disadvantage of field experiments is that there is less control over the sample (this is who is taking part in the experiment). Therefore the sample might not be very representative of the target population.

3) A disadvantage of field experiments is that they might be difficult to replicate which means that they might be unreliable, especially when compared to laboratory experiments.

Question 13

What are natural experiments?

Answer 13

the researcher takes advantage of a naturally occurring independent variable to see its effect on the dependent variable

A natural experiment is a study that measures variables that aren’t directly manipulated by the experimenter.

Effectively the experimenter is finding participants who already meet the conditions of the experiment, rather than allocating participants to conditions themselves.

Question 14

What are the advantages of natural experiments

Answer 14

1) An advantage of natural experiments is that there is a high level of mundane realism and ecological validity compared to laboratory experiments.

2) An advantage of natural experiments is that they are very useful when it is impossible or unethical to manipulate the independent variable/sample in a laboratory or field experiment. An example might be that psychologists wish to study a naturally occurring event which would otherwise be unethical to impose on participants

Question 15

What are the disadvantages of natural experiments

Answer 15

1) A disadvantage of natural experiments is that there is low control over extraneous variables compared to a laboratory experiment
2) A disadvantage of natural experiments is that they are very difficult to replicate. This means that they often are very unreliable and if the experiment was repeated, it is very unlikely that the same results would be gained again.

3) A problem of natural experiments is that they are difficult to determine cause and effect due to low levels of control.

Question 16

Quasi experiments

Answer 16

contain a naturally occurring independent variable. However, in a quasi-experiment the naturally occurring independent variable is a difference between people that already exists (i.e. gender, age). The researcher examines the effect of this variable on the dependent variable (DV).

Quasi experiments usually take place in a laboratory setting.

Question 17

What are the advantages of Quasi experiments

Answer 17

1. A strength is that there is high level of control. The effects of extraneous variables are minimized, so the experimenter can be more confident that is the independent variable which has affected the dependent variable.
2. A strength is that replication is very likely. Due to strict controls this means it is easier to replicate the study to test reliability of findings.

Question 18

What are the disadvantages Of quasi experiments

Answer 18

1) Lack of ecological validity because the setting is artificial experiments may not be a reflection of real-life behaviour.

2) Demand characteristics might be a problem. The participants may either accurately or inaccurately guess the aim of the experiment and respond according to what they think is being is investigated. This can affect the data collected and the results of the study (invalid).

Question 19

What is an observation

Answer 19

An observation is when a researcher watches or listens to participants engaging in whatever behaviour is being studied.

Question 20

What is a non participant observation

Answer 20

This is when the researcher does not get directly involved with the interactions of the participants and does not take part in their activities.

Question 21

What is an advantage of non participant observation

Answer 21

. Can focus on the activity occurring and can make good quality notes. Can make sure that all details are recorded and no activity/behaviours are missed

Question 22

What is a disadvantage of non participant observation

Answer 22

As the researcher is not engaging in the activity, it might mean that they fail to have a deeper understanding of the observed behaviour. Might lack validity.
The researcher must be careful that they do not look too out of place, and also ensure the participants do not guess that someone is watching them

Question 23

What is participant observation

Answer 23

This is when the researcher is directly involved with the interactions of the participants and will engage in the activities that the participants are doing

Question 24

What is an advantage of participant observation

Answer 24

The observation might have greater validity than non-participant observation, as the researcher is getting involved in the activity and would have a greater understanding

Question 25

What is a disadvantages of participant observation

Answer 25

The researcher might lose objectivity and become too subjective and biased as they are so involved with the activity they are observing

Question 26

What is a covert observation

Answer 26

The psychologist goes undercover and does not reveal their true identity, they may even give himself or herself a new identity. The group does not know that they are being observed.

Question 27

What is an advantage of covert observation

Answer 27

Less demand characteristics than an overt observation. Participants do not know they are being observed and therefore are less likely to guess the aim of the study

Question 28

What is a disadvantage of covert observation

Answer 28

Can break ethical guidelines. Participants do not know that they are being observed and therefore there might be no informed consent and deception might be occurring

Question 29

What is an overt observation

Answer 29

The psychologist reveals their true identity and might also state that they are observing the group. This can mean that observer effects can occur as participants may change their behaviour when they know they are being observed, leading to invalid results.

Members of the public then become very aware that their behavior is being observed.

Question 30

What is an advantage of over observation

Answer 30

Very ethical compared to covert observations. Participants know they are being observed and can give their fully informed consent

Question 31

What is a disadvantage of overt observation

Answer 31

Less valid than covert observation. Participants know they are being observed and therefore might guess the aim of the study and change their behaviour (demand characteristics)

Question 32

What is a naturalistic observation

Answer 32

A researcher observes participants in their own natural environment and there is no deliberate manipulation of the independent variable.

Question 33

What is an advantage of naturalistic observation

Answer 33

1) Participants are usually unaware that they are being observed (covert observation) so there is a reduced chance of observer effect and participants are likely to act naturally. This gives valid results.

2) These studies have high mundane realism as the behaviour that is shown is likely to reflect everyday behaviour. These observations are also high in ecological validity, which means the results can be generalised to other settings and contexts.

3) Naturalistic observations are useful when the deliberate manipulation of variables would be impractical or unethical. For instance if we were to observe children in the playground naturally playing, it might be unethical to deliberately tell a child to be aggressive to another. However, if we saw natural aggression in the playground then this is more ethical as it has not been forced upon the participants.

Question 34

What are disadvantages of naturalistic observations

Answer 34

1) It is impossible to have any control over extraneous variables. This means that other variables might be affecting the dependent variable other than the independent variable. This could make results invalid

2) It is problematic to try to determine the cause of a behaviour, especially as there is a high lack of control. Therefore cause and effect cannot be truly determined by naturalistic observations, a more controlled observation would be needed.

3) There is a risk of observer bias. Due to lack of control the observer might be very subjective and might be very biased when trying to interpret behaviour. These interpretations might be incorrect and could lead to unreliable results (if the observation were to be repeated, the same results would NOT be gained again).

Question 35

What are controlled observations

Answer 35

A researcher observes participants in a controlled environment and this allows for manipulation of the independent variable. An example might be to watch participants in a laboratory setting and record their behaviour

Question 36

What are the advantages of controlled observation

Answer 36

1) Cause and effect can be determined because the observation is highly controlled. Therefore psychologists can identify whether the independent variable caused a change in the dependent variable.

2) Extraneous variables can be controlled for in this type of observation. Therefore it means the results will be more valid as we can be more certain that the independent variable is having an effect of the dependent variable.

3) Controlled observations are likely to yield qualitative data that is rich and detailed. This also increases the validity of the study as the observation is likely to be accurately measuring the key variables identified in the aim.

Question 37

What are the disadvantages of controlled observation

Answer 37

1) Low levels of mundane realism and ecological validity because of the high control in the observation. This is likely to be restrictive and means that the results might not be an accurate reflection of everyday life and might not be able to be generalised to other settings and contexts.

2) Observer effects can occur as participants usually know they are being observed (overt observation). Therefore participants might show social desirability bias and might behave unnaturally which means the data collected might be invalid.

3) There is a risk of observer bias which means that the researchers own views and opinions can influence the recording of the data which then becomes inaccurate.

Question 38

What is observer bias?

Answer 38

If the observer knows the purpose of the study then they may observe behaviours that they think meet their aims and hypothesis. This can influence how they record the data from the study which might be inaccurate and subjective

.Observers need to be reliable, one way to check this is to have two observers who each record their data separately. They then correlate their observations and data together and if a Kappa score of +0.8 is gained then the data gained from each researcher is reliable. This is known as inter-rater reliability.

Question 39

What are behavioural categories

Answer 39

These are specific types of behaviour that are being looked for in an observation.

Question 40

What is event sampling

Answer 40

The observer decides in advance what types of behaviour they are interested in and records all occurrences. All other types of behaviour are ignored.

Question 41

What is time interval sampling

Answer 41

The observer decides in advance that observation will take place only during specified time periods (e.g. 10 minutes every hour, 1 hour per day) and records the occurrence of the specified behaviour during that period only.

Question 42

What is the self report technique

Answer 42

Self-report techniques are research methods in which participants give information about themselves without researcher interference. The participants self-report information possibly without the researcher being present for some of the techniques.

Question 43

What are interviews

Answer 43

Interviews involve researchers asking questions in face-to-face situations.

Question 44

What is a structured interview

Answer 44

All participants are asked the same questions in the same order.
This provides quantitative data, which is data that can be counted or expressed numerically.
It usually consists of closed questions that have restricted answers

Question 45

What are the advantages of structured interviews

Answer 45

.

Question 46

What are the disadvantages of a structured interview

Answer 46

.

Question 47

What is an unstructured interview

Answer 47

An informal in-depth conversational exchange between the interviewer and interviewee.
Questions are not pre planned, but might consist of themes that the interviewer wants to discuss.
This provides qualitative data, non-numerical data that uses words to give a description of what people think and feel.

It usually consists of open questions that require an in depth answers about opinions,

Question 48

What are disadvantages of unstructured interviews

Answer 48

a) There is also a risk of social desirability (when people lie to present themselves in a positive light, particularly when discussing issues that may be socially sensitive). Therefore the results might not be very valid or accurate

b) Interviewers need to be well trained in order to accurately conduct an unstructured interview and to gain relevant data. This can be time consuming and expensive in order to ensure the correct training is carried out. More training is needed for an unstructured interview than a structured interview.

Question 49

What are semi structured interviews

Answer 49

This type of interview combines a mixture of structured and unstructured techniques producing both quantitative and qualitative data.

It will consist of both closed questions and then open questions.

Some of the questions will be pre planned and then later on in the interview there will be themes that the researcher might want to discuss.

Question 50

What are the advantages of semi structured interviews

Answer 50

1) Can gain both qualitative and quantitative data
2) The qualitative answers are high in validity and the quantitative answers are high in reliability

Question 51

What are disadvantages of semi structured interviews

Answer 51

1) Some of the answers based on key themes might be irrelevant and might not be linked to the interview topic
2) The responses might be more difficult to analyse compared to a structured interview (answers would be more closed and have more stats).

Question 52

What are questionnaires

Answer 52

Participants are given a written set of questions and instructions about how to record their answers. Questionnaires mainly focus on the individual’s behaviour, opinions, beliefs and attitudes.
Questionnaires can be self-administered, delivered by post, internet or face to face.

Question 53

What are closed questions

Answer 53

Require participants to answer yes/no or choose from fixed responses (quantitative data).

Question 54

What are open questions

Answer 54

Allow the participant to answer in their own words (qualitative data).

Question 55

What are the advantages of questionnaires

Answer 55

1) Questionnaires are quick, easy, and relatively cheap. It is possible to have a large sample and collect a large amount of data when using a questionnaire compared to another research method such as an unstructured interview

2) Questionnaires (especially structured questionnaires) are very easy to replicate and this means their reliability can be established. This means that if the questionnaire was to be repeated, the same results would be gained on the second questionnaire. This indicates high reliability.

Question 56

What are the disadvantages of questionnaires

Answer 56

1) Questions can be ambiguous and the wording might not be clear. If the researcher is not there to explain the questions it means that they might be misunderstand or participants could misinterpret the questions. This could lead to invalid data collection

2) Questionnaires can have a low response rate especially if they are sent by the post and need to be returned. Also if there is no researcher present to remind participants to fill in the questionnaire and return it, many questionnaires might end up being unanswered OR filled in and not returned.

Question 57

What are advantages of unstructured interviews

Answer 57

Can gain rich and detailed data that is high in validity (measuring the variables stated in the aim)

Question 58

What is a correlation

Answer 58

A correlation is a technique for analysing the strength of the relationship between two quantitative variables, known as co-variables. The data for a correlation is usually obtained from a non-experimental source, such as a survey.

1) A positive correlation - this means that as one variable increases the other variable increases as well,

2) A negative correlation - this means that as one variable increases the other variable decreases

3) No correlation – there is no relationship between the two variables.

Question 59

What are the advantages of correlations

Answer 59

1) Correlations allows psychologists to establish the strength of the relationship between two variables and measure it precisely

2) Correlations allows researchers to investigate things that could not be manipulated experimentally for ethical or practical reasons, for instance a natural relationship might occur between the variables of being highly stressed and having cardiovascular disease. It would be unethical to intentionally inflict stress or cardiovascular disease upon participants, but if it occurred naturally then it would be fine to study this issue

3) Once a correlation has been conducted predictions can be made about one of the variables based on what is known about the other variable. For instance if we know that high stress causes high cholesterol, then we might state that as stress increases, cholesterol might increase.

Question 60

What are the disadvantages of correlations

Answer 60

1) Correlational analysis cannot demonstrate cause and effect; we cannot tell which variable influences the other. For instance can we sure that high stress causes an increase in cholesterol, or does having high cholesterol cause an increase in stress?

2) Even if there is a correlation between two variables it may be the case that the variables are not actually related but that there is a third unknown variable which influences both. For instance maybe an unhealthy diet might cause an increase in cholesterol (rather than stress causing the increase)?

3) Correlations can only measure linear relationships and does not detect curvilinear relationships. This is when there is a positive relationship up to a certain point but after that the relationship becomes negative or (vice versa).

Question 61

What are aims?

Answer 61

Deciding upon an aim is the first step when conducting research.

An aim is a precise statement about the purpose of the study and what it intends to find out.

The aim should include what is being studied and what the study is trying to achieve.

Question 62

Operationalising variables

Answer 62

The second step is to decide upon the independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV) and operationalise them.

Operationalisation is defining the variables in such a way as to make them easy to measure.

Question 63

What is a hypothesis?

Answer 63

The third step is to decide upon a hypothesis and operationalise it.

A hypothesis is a precise, testable statement about the expected outcome of an investigation.

Differences in the DV resulting from manipulation of the IV are known as significant differences if it has been statistically shown that the differences are highly unlikely to be due to chance.

Question 64

What are the 2 types of hypothesis and explain each type

Answer 64

Null Hypothesis:
This states that the IV will have no effect on the dependent variable

Alternative/Experimental Hypothesis:
This predicts that the IV will have an effect on the DV
The alternative hypothesis falls into one of two categories.

Non-Directional Hypothesis: Two tailed
This does not state the direction of the predicted differences between conditions (e.g. ‘eating chocolate will significantly affect a person’s mood’).

Directional Hypothesis: One tailed
This states the direction of the predicted difference between conditions (e.g. ‘eating chocolate will increase a person’s mood’).

The hypothesis should also be operationalised.