Research Methods A2

Question 1

What is content Analysis

Answer 1

a method used to analyse qualitative data.

It allows a researcher to take qualitative data and transform it into quantitative data.

It can be used for data in many different formats

The researcher conducting a content analysis will use coding units in their work. An example of coding units would be the number of positive or negative words used by a mother to describe her child’s behaviour.

Question 2

Content analysis procedure:

Answer 2

1) Data is collected
2) researcher reads through or examines the data, making themselves familiar with it
3) the researcher identifies the coding units
4) the data is analysed by applying the coding units
5) a tally is kade of the number of times that a coding unit appears.

Question 3

Thematic Analysis

Answer 3

A method for analysing qualitative data that involves identifying and reporting patterns within the material.

If using thematic analysis to analyse an interview the researcher will need to:
Make a transcription of the interview.

Use coding units to initially analyse the transcript.

Review the coding units to look for themes.

Question 4

Evaluation of Content Analysis

Answer 4

Advantages:
- It is a reliable way to analyse qualitative data as the coding units are not open to interpretation and so are applied in the same way over time and with different researchers.
- It is an easy technique to use and is not too time consuming.
- It allows a statistical analysis to be conducted if required as there is usually quantitative data as a result of the procedure.

Disadvantages:
-Causality cannot be established as it merely describes the data.
- As it only describes the data it cannot extract any deeper meaning or explanation for the data patterns arising.

Question 5

Case Studies

Answer 5

Case studies involve the detailed investigation of a single individual or group or institution. This may be because the psychologist has only found one or two individuals who display this rare behaviour.

They provide rich, detailed qualitative data

They usually involve several methods (observations, interviews, etc.) which allows researchers to check for consistency, reliability and validity.

Psychologists can collect qualitative data (for example from interviews and observations); and/or quantitative data such as questionnaires or experiments.

Case studies can last weeks, months or years and so can be longitudinal. This means they are able to observe changes over time.

Question 6

Evaluation of Case Studies

Answer 6

Advantages
- Case studies create opportunities for a rich yield of data, and the depth of analysis can in turn bring high levels of validity.

• Studying abnormal psychology can give insight into how something works when it is functioning correctly, such as brain damage on memory.
• The detail collected on a single case may lead to interesting findings that conflict with current theories, and stimulate new paths for research.

Disadvantages:
- There is little control over a number of variables involved in a case study, so it is difficult to confidently establish any causal relationships between variables.

• Case studies are unusual by nature, so will have poor reliability as being able to replicate them exactly will be unlikely.
• Due to the small sample size, it is unlikely that findings from a case study alone can be generalised to the wider population.

Question 7

Reliability

Answer 7

Refers to the consistency of a research study or a measuring test.

Question 8

Internal Reliability

Answer 8

Internal reliability refers to the extent to which a measure is consistent within itself.

The split-half method assesses the internal reliability of a test, such as questionnaires. It measures the extent to which all parts of the test contribute equally to what is being measured. This is done by comparing the results of one half of a test with the results from the other.
If the two halves of the test provide similar results this would suggest that the test has internal reliability.

Question 9

External Reliability

Answer 9

External reliability refers to the extent to which a measure varies from one use to another.

Test-retest - giving participants the same test on two separate occasions. If the same or similar results are obtained then external reliability is established.

Each participant’s scores from the first occasion should be correlated with their results from the later occasion and shown on a scattergraph to describe the correlation

The strength of the correlation should be assessed using a Spearman’s rho test or a Pearson’s r test. The degree of reliability is then determined by comparing the correlation with the statistical table to determine the extent of the correlation – there should be a strong positive correlation between the two sets of data. Researchers generally accept 0.8 correlation between the test and retest.

With inter-rater reliability researchers observe the same behavior independently (to avoided bias) and compare their data. If the data is similar then it is has external reliability. Researchers generally accept 0.8 correlation between the test and re-test.
For example, if a researcher was doing an observation of how people spend their time at the gym, they could use two observers (inter-observer reliability) who discuss and agree beforehand their interpretation of the behavioural categories. Then a statistical comparison of data from both observers will be carried out and compare their separate recordings. The researchers could also check for intra-observer reliability. This is when an observation is video recorded so that it can be watched several times.

Question 10

Validity

Answer 10

whether a measure is actually measuring what it claims to be measuring

Face validity - when behaviour appears at first sight to represent what is being measured.

Question 11

Internal Validity

Answer 11

when the effects observed in a study are due to the manipulation of the independent variable.

There is a causal relationship between the independent variable and dependent variable.

Internal validity can be improved by controlling extraneous variables, using standardised instructions, counterbalancing, and eliminating demand characteristics and investigator effects.

Concurrent validity is a way of establishing the internal validity of a new test.

The scores gained from this new test can be compared against an older established test where the validity is already known (e.g. Stanford-Binet IQ test).

If the scores from both tests are similar and a positive correlation coefficient of +0.8 or greater is found, then the new test is judged as having high internal validity.

Question 12

External Validity meaning

Answer 12

The extent to which the results of a study can be generalised to:
- other settings (ecological validity),
- other people (population validity)
- over time (temporal validity)

Question 13

How can external validity be improved

Answer 13

by setting experiments in a more natural setting and using random sampling to select participants

Question 14

Ecological validity

Answer 14

where a measure of behaviour accurately reflects the way in which the behaviour would occur in normal circumstances

Question 15

Population validi

Answer 15

the extent to which the sample can be generalised
to the wider population.

Question 16

Temporal validity

Answer 16

when findings from research which took place at a certain point in time accurately reflect the way behaviour would occur at a different point in time.

Question 17

Science: The key features:

Answer 17

.

Question 18

Psychology is a science when:

Question 19

Empirical methods defined:

Question 20

Paradigm shift overview

Answer 20

a shared set of assumptions and agreed methods that are found within scientific disciplines.

Kuhn suggested that what distinguishes scientific and non-scientific disciplines is the presence of paradigms.

Social sciences like Psychology lack a universal acceptance of paradigms and that is why psychology might be viewed as a, “Pre- science” rather than a science

Psychology has too many internal disagreements and conflicting approaches to qualify as a science and is a pre-science.

Question 21

Paradigm shift stages

Answer 21

Kuhn - A paradigm shift is when, “The result of a scientific revolution occurs. A significant change in the dominant unifying theory of a scientific discipline occurs”

Paradigm shift occurs in two stages:

1) One theory remains dominant within a scientific discipline. Some researchers might question the accepted paradigm and might have contradictory research that disagrees with the main paradigm. Counter evidence might start to accumulate against the main paradigm, critics might begin to gain popularity and eventually the counter evidence becomes hard to ignore. The present paradigm might then be overthrown due to the emergence of a new one. This is an example of a paradigm shift.

2) An established science makes rapid progress and a scientific revolution occurs due to the paradigm shift

Question 22

Objectivity

Answer 22

“Dealing with facts in a way that is unaffected by beliefs, opinions, feelings or expectations.”

A good researcher is always objective and keeps a, “critical distance” from the research they are conducting.

Researchers should not let their personal opinions or biases interfere or affect the outcome of the research.

A high level of objectivity increases other researcher’s confidence that the results are accurate, and can be replicated.

Objectivity is the basis of the empirical method, and is more likely to be achieved when using laboratory experiments or observations.