Approaches

Question 1

The definition of psychology

Answer 1

The scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially affecting behaviours in a given context

Question 2

The definition of science

Answer 2

.a means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. The aim is to discover laws.

Question 3

Wilhelm Wundt – Introspection – Psychology emerging as a science: AO1

Answer 3

Wundt was the first person to call himself a, “psychologist” and he is known as the, “father of psychology” whereby his ideas stem from philosophical roots

In 1879, Wundt opened the first experimental psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, which helped to shape Psychology as a science. The laboratory was designated to the aid the scientific study of psychological inquiry using controlled conditions that could facilitate replication of results.

Question 4

Wilhelm Wundt - introspection

Answer 4

Wundt devised, “Introspection” as a way of studying internal mental events.

Introspection is “The first systematic and experimental attempt to study mental processes by breaking down conscious awareness into basic structures of reflections, thoughts, images and sensations.”

Wundt wanted to focus on the psychological processes of perception and structuralism. Structuralism is a theory of consciousness developed by Wundt. It involves the use of introspection, self-reports of feelings

He wanted to document and describe the structure of human consciousness (introspection) and this involved him and his workers recording their own conscious thoughts and breaking them down into sensations, emotions, reactions etc.

Wundt wanted to investigate psychology in much the same way as the traditional sciences, as he believed Psychology should emerge as a science

Wundt used scientific methods to investigate introspection, and this paved the way for Psychology to be seen as a science and helped develop cognitive psychology

Introspection was recorded under controlled conditions in a laboratory using the same stimuli, the same reaction times and the same instructions given to participants, and they had to focus on present experiences

Introspection involves the person saying everything that is going through their mind whilst they are doing an activity. They must keep talking even if their ideas are not clear. This made the research into introspection highly reliable so that replication would be possible

This process marked Psychology as very separate from its early philosophical roots

Wundt recognised later on that mental processes were difficult to study using introspection, and this encouraged a search for alternative methods.

Question 5

An evaluation of Introspection and the emergence of Psychology as a science: AO3

Answer 5

Advantages:
1) Introspection has the advantage that it has helped to develop other approaches in psychology (such as behaviourism via Watson and the cognitive approach by Beck).

2) Introspection has the advantage of being extremely scientific. It shares the same qualities as the scientific subjects of Chemistry, Biology and Physics - all of these subjects make predictions from hypotheses. There is a high level of control of variables as all of these subjects study behaviour in a laboratory setting

3) Introspection has the advantage of being able to establish what causes behaviour. If we know what causes behaviour to occur, then we can predict future behaviour.

4) Introspection has the advantage that it is still used today in areas of therapy that study emotional states. E.g introspection can be used in cognitive therapy in order to try to get patients to alter their negative thinking and turn them into positive thoughts. Therefore introspection can still be applied to contemporary therapy used in modern society

5) Wundt supports and advocates the idea of reductionism. He believed consciousness could be broken down to its basic elements without sacrificing any of the properties of the whole. He studied internal mental processes by deconstructing them down into measurable units such as perception, senses and experiences.

Disadvantages
1) Watson criticised Wundt’s idea of introspection and whether psychology was emerging as a science. Introspection produces subjective data which varies from one individual to the next, and therefore introspection is not objective or reliable.

2) Introspection has been criticised because it is not very scientific or accurate. Wilson claims that psychologists have little knowledge about some behaviour and attitudes that might exist outside of conscious awareness (e.g. racism). Introspection would not be able to uncover and help us understand these thought processes

3) Introspection can be criticised because it fails to explain HOW the mind works and the processes involved in thinking about a particular topic/doing an activity. Psychologists cannot see how thoughts are generated and introspection cannot be properly observed

Question 6

Definition of the behavioural approach

Answer 6

A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observed in terms of learning

Question 7

The behavioural approach assumptions: AO1

Answer 7

• emerged at the beginning of the 20th century
• was the driving force in the development of psychology as a science
• focussed on behaviour being measured and observed
• all behaviour is learnt and involves the same process for animals and humans - classical/operant conditioning
• maintains more control and objectivity within research and relies on lab experiments

Question 8

What is classical conditioning

Answer 8

Learning by association
A neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus. The neutral stimulus will eventually produce the same response that was produced by the unconditioned response alone

Question 9

Classical Conditioning: The work of Ivan Pavlov (summary) (1904) (AO1)

Answer 9

Dogs can be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell, if the sound of a bell is repeatedly presented at the same time as food is presented. Both of these stimuli would be paired together causing a learning response, so that the dog would learn to associate the sound of the bell with food and then salivate. At the end of the conditioning process, the dog will learn to salivate when they hear the sound of the bell

Question 10

Classical Conditioning: The work of Ivan Pavlov (process) (1904) (AO1)

Answer 10

Before classical conditioning:
Food (unconditioned stimulus) produces the unconditioned response of the dog salivating

A bell (neutral stimulus) is rung (presented alone, without the presence of food). The dog does not salivate (no conditioned response is observed)

During classical conditioning:
The unconditioned stimulus (food) is repeatedly paired with the neutral stimulus (the bell ringing) to produce salivation (unconditioned response).

After conditioning:

We can then present the bell alone (conditioned stimulus) and the dog will then begin to salivate (conditioned response). Learning has taken place via classical conditioning and an association has been established between the bell being rung and the dog salivating

Question 11

principles of classical conditioning in relation to Pavlov’s research:

Answer 11

1) Generalisation:
Stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimuli (bell) will cause the conditioned response (salivation) e.g. a bell with a different pitch

2) Discrimination:
Stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimuli (bell) will not produce the conditioned response (salivation). This can be done by withholding the unconditioned stimulus (food). E.g a similar sounding bell is rung but food is not presented at the same time, so salivation doesn’t occur

3) Extinction:
The conditioned response (salivation) is not produced because of the bell being rung. This occurs when the conditioned stimulus (bell) is presented without the unconditioned stimulus of food

Question 12

Evaluation of classical conditioning: AO3

Answer 12

Advantages
1) A strength of the behavioural model is that it can be easily tested and measured in a scientific way by using observations in a laboratory. The behavioural model relies on observing behaviour that can be directly seen and measured in a highly controlled setting. This helps aid objectivity and replication

2) A strength of Pavlov’s research is that it has helped apply classical conditioning to treatments of psychological disorders. E.g classical conditioning has helped form treatments such as flooding and systematic desensitisation.

Disadvantages

1) Classical conditioning is successful in explaining how learning can occur in animals and young children. However it is not very strong in explaining how adults learn new behaviours.

2) Menzies criticises the behavioural model and the idea of classical conditioning. He studied people that had hydrophobia, and he found that only 2% of his sample had encountered a negative experience with water (due to classical conditioning). Therefore, 98% of his sample had a phobia of water but had never had a negative experience involving water.

3) The behaviourial model can be criticised because it views humans and animals as passive recipients who have machine like responses to stimuli in the environment. Animals and humans can easily learn new behaviours and have little or no conscious thought at all. This minimises their free will.

4) The behavioural model would be criticised by the biological approach. The behavioural model would ignore the role of genes, hormones, evolution and neural mechanisms that are responsible for behaviour. There is very strong research evidence from psychologists that behaviour is determined by genes. Therefore other models in psychology should also be considered when looking at how behaviours develop

5) A disadvantage of classical conditioning is that is can be viewed as being deterministic because it ignores the role of free will in people’s behavioural responses. Classical conditioning anticipates an individual will respond to a conditioned stimulus with no variation, which is not accurate. People have control over how they might respond to an association between two stimuli. This can lead to explanations for behaviour that are incomplete and inconsistent.

Question 13

Definition of operant conditioning

Answer 13

A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by consequences. The consequences include punishment and positive/negative reinforcement

Question 14

Definition of positive reinforcement

Answer 14

receiving something positive when carrying out a behaviour, encouraging you to carry out that behaviour in the future

Question 15

Definition of negative reinforcement

Answer 15

performing a behaviour in order to avoid something unpleasant, so the behaviour continues in the future

Question 16

Definition of punishment

Answer 16

an unpleasant consequence caused by certain behaviours.

Question 17

Operant Conditioning: The work of Skinner (1953) AO1

Answer 17

This method of learning focuses on behaviour producing consequences such as punishment, positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement

Skinner conducted research on pigeons and rats in “The Skinner box”. The Skinner box was a cage which has a lever and a floor which could be electrified.

One hungry rat would be placed in the skinner box and would be allowed to run round. The rat might accidentally press the lever and the rat would be rewarded by a food pellet which would drop into the skinner box (positive reinforcement). The rat would continue to press the lever in order to receive a food pellet in the future, and the rat soon learns that pressing the lever leads to a reward

The rat could also learn that by pressing the lever they could avoid something unpleasant - by pressing the lever the rat could avoid receiving an electric shock (conducted via the floor). This is an example of negative reinforcement

Question 18

What is extinction (skinner’s box)

Answer 18

Extinction - when the rat presses the lever but no longer receives a reward (food pellet), it soon learns that pressing the lever leads to no rewards. The rat will therefore stop pressing the lever as it has learnt that it leads to no more rewards.

Question 19

What is spontaneous recovery (skinner’s box)

Answer 19

Spontaneous recovery - Following extinction, if the rat presses the lever and receives a food pellet, it will learn that pressing the lever results in a food pellet. The rat will learn this link very quickly and “spontaneously recover” what he had previously learned

Question 20

What are schedules of reinforcement (skinner’s box)

Answer 20

Schedules of reinforcement - there are different methods of reinforcement that might occur: some examples include:

Continuous reinforcement - Every time the rat presses the lever they will always receive a food pellet

Fixed Interval - The rat presses the lever and only receives a food pellet during a fixed time only, e.g. every 30 seconds

Fixed ratio: The rat must press the lever for a fixed number of times and then it will receive the food pellet

Question 21

Evaluation of operant conditioning: AO3

Answer 21

Advantages
1) There is research evidence to support the idea of operant conditioning in the real world. Token economy is used in institutions such as prisons and hospitals and acts as a form of behaviour modification. Token economy works by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens which can be exchanged for privileges. Research conducted by Paul and Lentz used token economy to treat patients who had schizophrenia, and it was found that their behaviour became more appropriate.

2) A strength of the research conducted by Skinner using the Skinner box is that he relied on the experimental method. He used highly controlled conditions to discover the relationship between variables so that he could establish a cause and effect relationship,

3) The research by Skinner is on the nurture side of the nature/nurture debate. This would state that learning occurs due to environmental factors and external stimuli rather than due to nature and biology. Therefore by manipulating factors in the environment this can have an effect on learning and behaviour, and is supported by nurture

Disadvantages
1) Skinner’s research involving the Skinner box can be criticised. Skinner ignores the concept of free will. He suggests that past experiences involving operant conditioning will affect future behaviour, and people/animals have no control over their actions or the behaviours they show. This is a deterministic view of behaviour which does not account for free will and the fact that a human/animal has a choice over how they behave.

2) The Skinner box has been criticised in terms of ethical issues. Rats and pigeons were often placed in the Skinner box in stressful and aversive conditions which could have a negative effect upon the psychological and physical health of the animals. There is also the issue about generalising the results gained from rats and pigeons to humans. Animals are very different to humans, and therefore the results that Skinner gained from his experiments might not be applicable to humans

3) Operant conditioning is rooted in the behaviourist approach in Psychology and would ignore the biological approach. The biological approach would argue against the behavioural approach and would state that behaviour cannot be learnt, but instead behaviour is heavily influenced by the role of genes, hormones and biochemical/neural mechanisms. Therefore other approaches in psychology must also be considered when examining the influences upon behaviour, and operant conditioning/learning cannot explain all behaviours.

Question 22

What is social learning?

Answer 22

New patterns of behaviour can be learnt by observing the behaviour of others

Question 23

AO1: Social Learning Theory by Bandura (1977)

Answer 23

1) Modelling:
Social learning requires a person to carry out the behaviour, so that the observer can learn the behaviour. The model can be live or it could be symbolic e.g a TV character. Models provide examples of behaviour which can be learned by imitation.

2) Imitation:
Children learn behaviours via imitation that are modelled by others and this process tends to be faster than using classical or operant conditioning. Key characteristics of successful imitation includes the factors of
A) The characteristics of the model (age, gender etc)
B) The observers perceived ability to perform the behaviour shown
C) The observed consequence of behaviour (positive or negative)

3) Identification:
This is the extent to which the observer relates to the model and feels that he/she is similar to them so that they could experience the same outcomes as the model. The person would aim to be like the model as much as they could.

4) Vicarious reinforcement:
Children who observed a model who got rewarded for showing aggressive behaviour were more likely to imitate the aggressive behaviour as compared to children who observed a model being punished for showing aggressive behaviour.
This is vicarious reinforcement and shows that individuals do not need to experience rewards or punishment directly in order to learn new behaviours. They can observe the consequences of behaviours by observing a model, and if rewards are given to the model, then children are more likely to imitate the behaviour shown.

Mediational processes: (cognition)
Social learning places importance on internal cognitive mediational processes. The observer must form a mental representation of the behaviour being displayed by the model and the likely consequences of the behaviour in terms of expectancies. The observer might display the learned behaviour, provided there is the expectation that positive consequences are more likely to occur than negative consequences.

Mediational processes involve the following points:
A) Attention – The observer must pay attention and notice the behaviour of the model
B) Retention – The observer must remember the behaviour of the model
C) Motor reproduction – The observer must be able to perform the behaviour
D) Motivation – The observer must be willing to perform the behaviour in light of rewards

Question 24

An evaluation of Social Learning Theory by Bandura: AO3

Answer 24

Advantages
1) It has provided great understanding of how criminal behaviour is learnt. Akers found that criminals seem to engage in more criminal behaviour when they are exposed to a model that they can highly identify with.

2) A strength of Social learning theory is that it is more effective when the model is very similar to the observer. If the observer is similar to the model, it makes it easier for the observer to visualise themselves in the place of the model and feel like they are having the same experience. Fox found evidence to suggest that when an observer played a computer game that had a model that looked very similar to themselves, they were more likely to engage in the same behaviours as the model

3) Social learning theory is good because it gives a more comprehensive view of human learning when compared to operant and classical conditioning. Social learning theory recognises the importance of both behavioural and cognitive factors (meditational processes) when examining how people learn new behaviours.

Disadvantages
1) Social learning theory can be criticised because it does not take into account cause and effect. e.g research has found that increased associations with peers can increase the likelihood of delinquent behaviour in young people through learning poor behaviour. However, we cannot assume that delinquency is caused by social learning theory alone. Other factors could cause delinquency such as deviant and poor attitudes that the person has held before

2) Social learning theory can be criticised because it ignores other potential influences on behaviour. For example Social learning theory would ignore the role of biology or genetics which could cause people to behave in certain ways. For example Bandura found in his experiment that boys were more aggressive than girls, regardless of the experimental situation they were in

3) The Social learning theory can be criticised because it sees behaviour as being determined by the environment rather than being caused by other factors such as genetics or innate behaviour. This can pose a criticism because genetics is a very big factor that can determine human behaviour, and the social learning theory ignores this factor.

Question 25

Bandura’s study on Social Learning Theory – The bobo doll experiment (1961): AO1:

Answer 25

Bandura conducted an observational study involving 36 male and 36 female children aged 37-69 months of age

The children had to observe either an aggressive/non aggressive female/male model who was interacting with a bobo doll.
In one condition the aggressive model displayed aggressive acts towards the bobo doll such as striking it with a mallet and shouting verbally aggressive words such as, “POW!”
After the children observed these aggressive acts, they were made to feel frustrated. They were shown attractive toys but told they were not allowed to play with them
The children (one by one) were then taken to a room which had some toys including a bobo doll (other toys include a mallet, a dart gun and some non aggressive toys too). The children were observed for 20 minutes
The results found that the children who observed the aggressive model reproduced the same aggressive behaviour towards the bobo doll, whereas the children who observed the non aggressive model, showed no aggression to the bobo doll.

33% of children who observed and heard verbal aggression repeated what they had seen and heard, “POW!” However 0% of children in the non aggressive group displayed verbal aggression

In a follow up study, children observed a model being rewarded for their aggressive behaviour, and this increased the likelihood that the children would also be aggressive towards the bobo doll.

Boys seem to more aggressive than girls, and imitation of aggression was greatest when the model was the same gender as the observer.

Question 26

Evaluation of Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment on Social Learning Theory: AO3

Answer 26

Advantages
1) Conducting research in a laboratory setting has the advantage that the study is highly controlled to ensure that the independent variable does have an effect on the dependent variable. It also ensures that the study is highly reliable and the results are likely to be replicated in the future

2) The research conducted by Bandura has the advantage of providing evidence that social learning theory is a powerful way for children to learn new behaviours (positive and negative ones). This has the implication that we should be very aware of the role of media on young children as they might be very easily influenced by what they see on TV etc. and might imitate negative/aggressive behaviours.

Disadvantages
1) Conducting research in a laboratory setting has the disadvantage that the results gained about social learning might not be able to be generalised to the wider population and might lack ecological validity. Also, observational research has the limitation that participants might show demand characteristics and guess the aim of the study and distort their behaviour giving invalid results about social learning theory

2) The use of a bobo doll in Bandura’s experiment has been criticised. The bobo doll is quite unique, and it is meant to be hit and thrown about because it “bounces back” into the same position. Critics have stated that a bobo doll is meant to be played with in an aggressive manner and therefore the results gained from Bandura’s study do not tell us much about social learning behaviour. Maybe the bobo doll should have been replaced with another toy such as a teddy bear.

3) The study by Bandura has been criticised because the bobo doll experiment is only examining the short term effects of social learning that are occurring within the experiment itself. We do not know whether the children left the experiment and behaved aggressively in the future (due to social learning theory), so therefore we do not know how powerful and influential social learning theory is as a method of learning.

4) Ethical issues can be a problem in this study. The children need to be protected from psychological harm in the fact they are being taught to be more aggressive. If they behave aggressively in real life this could lead to negative consequences and punishment. There is also the issue of physical harm whereby the children might wish to inflict harm on others because they have seen a model perform the same behaviours. All of the children should have been debriefed after the study to ensure that they were told the true aim, purpose and implications of social learning theory

Question 27

Key features of the cognitive approach:

Answer 27

Cognitive psychologists focus on attention, memory and how people perceive, store, manipulate and interpret information

Question 28

The information processing model:

Answer 28

Information is received through the senses and is processed by the brain.
The mind is like a computer

Question 29

Assumptions of the Cognitive Approach – Mental processes include the following (AO1)

Answer 29

Mental processes include:
Attention
Thinking
Store information in memory
Retrieve information

• psychologists cannot study cognitive processes directly, so instead they investigate it indirectly using inferences

Question 30

An introduction about Inferences: AO1:

Answer 30

Cognitive psychologists investigate internal mental processes by using lab and field experiments.

They use inferences about cognitive processes - the cognitive model makes assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed, going beyond immediate research evidence (it is difficult to gather data)

If direct observation of internal cognitive processes is not possible, results must be inferred from behaviour/data which might be invalid

Behaviour is influenced by thoughts that are both conscious and unconscious

Question 31

Schemas: AO1

Answer 31

Schemas are cognitive frameworks that are developed through experience and expectations about how we should behave.

They can help us organise and interpret vast amounts of information in the mind and can act as a “shortcut” where our mind can fill in the gaps about information that might be missed

Schemas can cause us to exclude anything that is inconsistent with our ideas about the world.

Role schema:
A schema about behaviour that is expected from someone in a particular role.

Event schema:
A schema about what to expect from an event.

Question 32

An Evaluation of the Cognitive approach: AO3

Answer 32

Advantages
1) It has many applications in different areas of Psychology. E.g social cognitions can help psychologists understand how we form impressions of other people and how we might form cognitive errors and biases. Cognitive Psychology might also explain the development of faulty negative thinking which can aid our understanding of abnormal psychology e.g. phobias.

2) It emphasises scientific methods e.g laboratory experiments when collecting data. This means that there are high levels of control and cause and effect relationships can be identified between the IV and DV. This makes the research more objective and scientific.

3) It has had a big influence on the development of cognitive neuroscience and therapies. Cognitive neuroscience aims to scientifically study the influence of brain structure on mental processes, and this has only been possible due to the work that has been developed through the cognitive approach. E.g cognitive therapy aims to change negative thoughts into more positive thoughts to help cure depression, so the approach is very useful and beneficial for therapies and treatments.

Disadvantages:
1) it focuses heavily on internal mental processes which are often ignored by other models in Psychology. E.g the biological approach would focus on genetics, biochemistry and neuroanatomy as factors that could cause behaviour to occur. The cognitive model would focus solely on thoughts and internal mental processes, and the biological model would ignore these factors

2) it does not give a full picture about what is really going on inside the mind. Psychologists need to make inferences about cognitive processing which might be based on limited information available from research. It is questionable whether psychologists can really understand and explain thinking by using inference alone.

3) Soft determinism - the idea behaviour is constrained by the environment or biology. The cognitive approach views behaviour as being determined by internal cognitive factors but would ignore biology or the environment. However, biology might have a big impact upon cognitive thinking, for example there is a great deal of evidence that depression and negative thinking might be genetic.

Question 33

A study of the role of schemas (internal cognitive processes) by Bartlett (1932) AO1:

Answer 33

The study was conducted in a laboratory setting. English participants were asked to read a Native American folk tale called, “The war of the Ghosts” which was unfamiliar and strange as it came from a different culture to England. It had an unfamiliar and unusual story structure compared to an English story.

Participants had to read the story, and then after different lengths of time they had to recall the story as accurately as possible (to test their schemas)

The results of the study showed that all English participants changed the story to fit their own schema. They reconstructed the story in order to recall it better and so that it was more logical. The details of the story became more modern and “English” and contained elements of the English culture.

As more time passed between reading the story and recalling the details, participants remembered less information.

conclusion - people use their own schemas to help them interpret and remember information, and this is dependent upon culture to an extent.

Question 34

Evaluation of the study, “The War of the Ghosts” (AO3)

Answer 34

Advantages
1) The study was conducted in a lab setting The IV can be highly controlled in order to accurately measure schemas and internal cognitive processes. The results are likely to be highly reliable if the study was to be repeated again.

2) The study confirms how important schema theory is when investigating internal mental cognitive processes. It shows that people will recall information in a way that fits in with their schema. This could have implications when asking people to recall information for eye witness testimony and court proceedings. People might distort their memories according to their schemas, but now psychologists are aware of this issue, they can ensure this does not happen

Disadvantages:
1) The participants might have been affected by demand characteristics. They might have guessed the aim of the study and might have altered their responses accordingly meaning that the study and the results are not valid. This might lead psychologist to question the results in relation to schemas and internal cognitive processes.

2) The sample used was biased. The study only used English participants which cannot be generalised to other samples from around the world. Therefore the results are quite narrow and biased and do not give a holistic view of different cultures and how their schemas and internal cognitive processes might operate.

Question 35

Similarities and differences between the human mind and a computer (AO1)

Answer 35

Similarities:
- both have an input (Data entry + senses)
- Both have memory
- Both have an output (printout vs behaviour)
- Both could malfunction

Differences:
- The brain is organic whereas computer is manmade
- Mind does not need plugging in
- Computer has limited memory
- Mind has emotions

Question 36

The information processing model (1980): AO1

Answer 36

• information is received through the senses and is processed by the brain in a series of steps (Input, processing, output).

Question 37

The emergence of cognitive neuroscience: (AO1)

Answer 37

Cognitive neuroscience - “The scientific study of the influence of the brain structure on mental processes. Areas of the brain can be mapped to locate specific cognitive functions”

Miller first used the term, “cognitive neuroscience” to bridge the gap between cognitive science and neuroscience.
It looks at the biological basis of thought processes e.g. neurones, combining cognitive + biological approaches.

The mind is like a computer, and cognitive neuroscience includes computer generated models which can read the brain and help develop mind mapping and brain finger printing.

Cognitive neuroscience evolved as technology has advanced. Cognitive neuroscientists use many different methods to study the brain e.g lesion studies where brain damaged patients and their brain is investigated, also neuroimaging whereby parts of the brain can be investigated for activation, whilst a patient is performing a task.

We can now study the living brain and get detailed information about mental processing in action e.g FMRI and PET scans

Question 38

An Evaluation of the use of theoretical computer models and the emergence of cognitive neuroscience: AO3

Answer 38

Advantages:
1) it is very dominant today in Psychology. The Cognitive approach can be applied to practical and theoretical contexts and has helped develop cognitive neuroscience. e.g Cognitive Psychology has helped contribute to the development of artificial intelligence.

2) it has been founded on the idea of, “soft determinism.”, meaning that humans recognise that their cognitive thinking system operates within the limits of what they know and humans are free to think before they respond to stimuli. The cognitive approach is more interactionist than other approaches and is not as deterministic as the behavioural approach

3) It focuses on theoretical computer models and emphasises scientific methods e.g lab experiments when collecting data. This means that there are high levels of control in these settings and cause and effect relationships can be identified between the IV and DV

Disadvantages
1) It uses theoretical computer models which over simplify behaviour being examined and reduce it to simple steps that could be regarded as reductionist or mechanistic. The role of emotion is overlooked when using theoretical models

2) It is not accurate to compare humans to computers. Computers are objects that are mechanistic and have no free will, whereas humans have free will. To compare humans to computers seems inaccurate as there are so many differences that exist between them, and we must be aware of this when applying cognitive neuroscience to human thinking.

3) it uses computer models to explain human behaviour e.g. input, processing and output. The human mind is very different to the workings of a computer, for example, computers do not forget things, they do not make mistakes and they do not get tired, unlike the human mind. Therefore it is inaccurate to compare the human mind to a computer.

Question 39

A study by Maguire (2000) – A study of taxi drivers’ brains (AO1):

Answer 39

Maguire investigated if brain anatomy was predetermined, or if the brain is susceptible to plastic changes, in response to environmental stimulation

Taxi drivers undergo training, known as ‘The Knowledge’ and make an ideal group for a study on spatial navigation.

The aim was to examine whether structural changes could be detected in the brain of people with extensive experience of spatial navigation.

32 healthy males (average age of 44) were investigated and split into two groups. One group were 16 licensed male London taxi drivers and the second group were 16 males in a control group who had never driven taxis.

MRI scans of their brain were taken and analysed. The results showed that the right posterior hippocampus in the brain of the taxi drivers’ was larger than the control group. The longer they had been a taxi driver, the larger the right posterior hippocampus. This part of the brain stores visual representations of the environment.

This demand in knowledge resulted in a physical change in the brain which was identified by the MRI scan.

A positive correlation was found between the amount of time spent as a taxi driver and volume in the right posterior hippocampus.

Question 40

Evaluation of the Maguire study:

Answer 40

Advantages

1) It supports the key aspects of cognitive neuroscience. The study uses MRI brain scanning to investigate the hippocampus area of the brain. The study also emphasises how the brain is “like a muscle” and the more an area of the brain is used or exercised, the larger it becomes

2) research evidence supports the idea that the right posterior hippocampus is involved in spatial awareness. Previous rodent and monkey studies found the posterior hippocampus to be involved in spatial navigation. Therefore it seems that the right posterior hippocampus is responsible for spatial awareness in humans and animals, and the functionality of the brain is similar across many species.

Disadvantages
1) it only investigated males which means the study lacks ecological validity and the results cannot be generalised to females. Individual differences is an important factor to consider when examining the brain and cognitive functions.

Question 41

The definition of “Genetics”: AO1

Answer 41

Involves passing on characteristics from one generation to the next
The extent to which a psychological characteristic is determined by genes or the environment

Question 42

The definition of “Genotype”: AO1

Answer 42

the genetic code written in the DNA of individual cells, which are inherited.
Consists of genes a person possesses

Question 43

The definition of “Phenotype”: AO1

Answer 43

the characteristics of an individual is determined by expression of physical, behavioural and psychological traits.
Genotype + environmental factors = phenotype

Question 44

The biological approach: The influence of genes and evolution on behaviour (AO1)

Answer 44

Individuals might inherit certain characteristics which are carried on genes
Psychologists research genetics by studying twins - MZ or DZ
Twin studies allow psychologists to look at concordance rates between twins (the chances of both twins inheriting a certain trait)

E.g from using gene mapping, it has been found that chromosome 13 carries the gene for schizophrenia

Question 45

An evaluation of genetics: AO3

Answer 45

Advantages
1) gene mapping can help psychologists locate genes on chromosomes which is scientific and objective. Therefore investigating genes involves precise methods of investigation which is supported by science

2) It often involves using twin and adoption studies. This is very useful when examining MZ identical twins as it can help psychologists examine concordance rates in relation to behaviour. The research by Gottesman and Shields would support the idea that illnesses such as schizophrenia are transmitted genetically

3) Genetics can help psychologists screen people to see if they carry genes for certain illnesses. This would involve gene mapping and it can help psychologists identify individuals who might be at risk from certain illness. This means that people might get psychological help before they become unwell (preventative)

Disadvantages
1) It is reductionist. It takes a complex human behaviour e.g IQ and reduces it down to small components such as genes. This idea seems inaccurate as other factors need to be considered e.g environment

2) other approaches in Psychology are being ignored. E.g the cognitive and behavioural approaches would also need to be considered when examining behaviour. E.g someone who has depression might carry the gene for depression, but they might also have negative thinking which has been ignored.

Question 46

The role of genes in developing schizophrenia – twin studies: A study by Gottesman and Shields: (AO1)

Answer 46

They investigated 224 sets of twins from 1948-1993 who appeared on the Maudsley twin register (106 sets of twins were MZ and 118 were DZ). 120 males and 104 females in total took part.

Their average age was 46 years, and they came from different ethnic backgrounds.

The study was conducted in a London hospital and was a longitudinal study following them over 25 years.

The study relied on the fact that one twin already had schizophrenia, and concordance rates were investigated examining the likelihood of the healthy twin becoming schizophrenic over time.

The methods used to diagnose schizophrenia included:
In depth interviews
Doctors case notes
The DSM

The result found that:
48% of MZ twins were both concordant for schizophrenia by the end of the study

17% of DZ twins were both concordant for schizophrenia by the end of the study

Question 47

Evaluation of the study by Gottesman and Shields AO3:

Answer 47

Advantages
1) The study was longitudinal, meaning that the schizophrenic patients could be tracked over long periods of time in order to monitor the development of schizophrenia. Longitudinal studies are valuable when investigating whether schizophrenia is caused by genetics

2) The research supports the biological approach as the results show 48% concordance rates for schizophrenia in MZ twins and 17% concordance in DZ twins. Therefore the results support the biological argument that schizophrenia can be transmitted by genetics

Disadvantages:
1) The research ignores the behavioural approach when examining the causes of schizophrenia. Identical twins often copy and model each other’s behaviour, so it could be that the healthy twin has modelled or copied schizophrenic behaviour rather than getting the illness via genetics. Therefore we must investigate fully whether the healthy twin gained schizophrenia via genetics or from observing and copying behaviour

2) The research relied on interviews with patients. Schizophrenia patients often have difficulty with their speech and communication so some patients may have found it difficult to communicate their symptoms effectively. Therefore this issue could have had a negative effect on the diagnosis and classification of schizophrenia

Question 48

Evolution by Charles Darwin (1851) AO1

Answer 48

Darwin focused on natural selection and adaptiveness to the environment over time

The genetic makeup of an individual can undergo a random mutation due to a factor in the environment, which could lead to a characteristic change occurring in future generations and may mean that survival and chances of reproduction are greater, and so this mutated gene will be passed on and is adaptive

Physical characteristics of a species may vary, and it might partly be due to genetics but we must also acknowledge the environment

Adaptiveness is important, because individuals often compete with each other for resources, and those who survive will reproduce (survival of the fittest).

Lea has found that aggression might be genetic. The warrior gene (MAOA gene) is found within the genotype of 33% of males. There is ongoing research into whether the most aggressive males have more chance of survival and passing on their genes.

In the animal kingdom, evolution can be seen in the giraffe and their long necks. Over time, giraffes evolved and their necks got longer so that they could access the best leaves in the tree for food and nutrition. The giraffes with the shortest necks might have died out and not evolved.

Question 49

Evaluation of the Evolutionary approach: AO3

Answer 49

Advantages:
1) Supported by the nature side of the nature/nurture debate. The evolutionary approach states that our genes and interactions with the environment have a direct effect on our behaviour, e.g genetic mutations in giraffes have led to them having very long necks so that they can get enough food in the environment.

2) It is supported by the work from Charles Darwin and survival of the fittest. This can help explain how certain traits become adaptive within a species such as males being tall, or giraffes having long necks

3) Evolutionary ideas mean that species compete with each other to seek the best mate to reproduce with. This helps to maximize the chances of healthy offspring being produced who will be healthy and will be able to pass on their genes to the next generation, helping human/animal species to evolve and adapt

Disadvantages
1) It does not clearly explain some behaviours and how or why they might be adaptive. E.g OCD is genetic, but it is not clear how OCD can be adaptive and can help aid survival of the fittest.

2) it fails to take into account behavioural and cognitive explanations for behaviour. The idea of every species wishing to reproduce and aid survival seems to take away the idea of free will , where not all members of a species have this drive or will make such decisions.

Question 50

Key research study on partner selection by Buss (1989) AO1 (Evolutionary approach)

Answer 50

Investigated what males and females looked for in a long term partner. 10,000 participants used across 37 cultures

They had to rate 18 characteristics (physical attraction, finances etc.) using a 4 point rating scale, where 0 = irrelevant, and 3 = highly valued.

The findings showed that females desired males with good financial prospects, resources and ambition

Males desired females who were fertile, youthful and younger than them

The research conducted by Buss seems to support evolutionary explanations for partner preferences

Question 51

Evaluation of research by Buss (AO3):

Answer 51

Advantages

1) The research has cross cultural validity when examining evolutionary explanations of behaviour. 37 cultures were assessed and it seems that from an evolutionary perspective females want to be “protected” and “cared for” by their male partner in terms of resources. This is supported by the fact that females might believe that a man with resources can look after her and their future offspring, this helps aid stability for the family unit.

Disadvantages

1) Research conducted by Buller has criticised Buss’s findings and the evolutionary explanation. Buller has questioned the idea that females universally prefer high status males with resources. Many females in today’s contemporary society are independent and have their own resources, and therefore do not rely on a mate to financially provide for them.

2) The research can be criticised because it does not take into account social and cultural perspectives that might affect partner choice. An example is that if males desire younger fertile women, they might feel pressure from their culture and peers to choose a suitable mate that fits in with the “ideal” standard proposed by society. Therefore the evolutionary approach would ignore other factors that might influence mate choice according to society’s norms, values and ideals.

Question 52

The Biological Approach: biological structures (AO1)

Answer 52

Biological structures include the following:
1) Neurons and the nervous system:
The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord, and controls breathing, and heart rate

The PNS sends and receives messages from the CNS to other parts of the body using neurons

Neurons transmit nerve impulses in the form of electrical signals

2) The brain:
The brain is made up of the left and right hemisphere, and has 4 lobes

Parietal lobe

Frontal lobe

Temporal lobe

Occipital lobe

Question 53

Evaluation of biological structures: AO3

Answer 53

Advantages
1) the study of the brain relies on the use of scans, such as PET and MRI and post mortem studies which adds to scientific evidence than can help support the biological approach. It can be viewed as one of the most scientific models/approaches

2) they can be scientifically and objectively investigated in order to test how they might affect behaviour. E.g the brain can be investigated using FMRI and PET scanning which gives psychologists access to investigating and understanding how the brain functions

Disadvantages
1) it is more applicable at explaining the causes of some behaviours, but not others. e.g infection or neuroanatomy of the brain can cause schizophrenia, but there are some behaviours that cannot be well explained by these ideas. e.g the development of phobias is usually learnt

2) Cause and effect is a disadvantage when looking at biological structures and their effect on behaviour. For instance can psychologists be sure that a brain malfunction is causing a behaviour to occur, e.g. a smaller hypothalamus causing schizophrenia?

3) psychologists still do not know 100% about the brain and its functions so there could be problems of trying to identify which part of the brain is responsible for certain behaviours and more investigation might be needed.

Question 54

Brain structure: Neural Correlates: A study by Swayze: (AO1)

Answer 54

Schizophrenia might develop due to structural and functional brain abnormalities.

Post mortems and FMRI were used to investigate the structure of the brain in patients who had schizophrenia

Swayze reviewed 50 studies of schizophrenic patients and examined their brain imaging using MRI

From these images, the structure of the brain could be examined and it was found that schizophrenic patients’ have structural abnormalities in their brain including:
* A decrease in brain weight
* Enlarged ventricles (that are filled with water)
* A smaller hypothalamus
* Less grey matter (this is where the intelligence is held and it seems to have deteriorated)
* Structural abnormalities in the pre frontal cortex (where the personality is held)

Question 55

An evaluation of the study by Swayze: AO3:

Answer 55

Disadvantages
1) Andreason has criticised the neural correlates explanation for schizophrenia. He found that the extent to which the ventricles in the brain are enlarged in schizophrenic patients is not significant; and therefore there is actually very little difference between the neural correlates of schizophrenic patients’ and normal people.

2) Cause and effect needs to be established. Is it the fact that abnormal neural correlates actually causes schizophrenia to occur, or does schizophrenia occur first and then cause neural correlates to alter?

3) There is a lot of evidence to state that schizophrenia is caused by neural correlates changing in the brain that occur during pre-natal development in the womb. However, this does not explain why schizophrenia occurs in early adulthood instead of infancy (+) (-)

Disadvantages:
1) Davison and Neale found contradictory evidence to suggest that enlarged brain ventricles are not only found in schizophrenia patients, but also in sufferers of mania, meaning enlarged ventricles alone cannot cause schizophrenia, but it could be a vulnerability factor that increases the risk of getting the illness.

Question 56

Neurochemistry/neurotransmitters and its effect on behaviour: (AO1)

Answer 56

This looks at the biochemistry of the central nervous system which involves hormones and neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters - “Brain chemicals that communicate information throughout our brain and body. They relay signals between neurons”

In the brain the transmission of neurotransmitters occurs via cerebral fluid.

Hormones:
The endocrine system is responsible for producing hormones in the body
The endocrine system consists of ductless glands that release hormones into the body which will affect behaviour

Question 57

Evaluation of neurochemistry

Answer 57

Advantages
1) Neurotransmitters can be measured objectively and scientifically. e.g dopamine can be measured by inserting a needle in the spine and extracting spinal plasma fluid.

2) If we know that a lack/excess of a particular neurotransmitter has an effect on behaviour, we can look for relevant treatments that can help solve the issue. E.g SSRI increases serotonin

Disadvantages
1) Cause and effect needs to be established. Can we be sure that high/low levels of neurotransmitters cause a change in behaviour

2) Neurotransmitters can be viewed as reductionist. To say that complex human behaviour can be affected by neurotransmitters alone is too simplistic and inaccurate. e.g is depression just caused by low serotonin levels

3) The idea that neurotransmitters effect behaviour can be criticised by the cognitive approach. The cognitive approach states that behaviour is caused by thought patterns and thinking rather than neurochemistry. e.g depression is caused by negative thinking

Question 58

The Dopamine Hypothesis by Davis and Neale (AO1): A study into neurochemistry and schizophrenia:

Answer 58

Schizophrenic patients’ tend to have high levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine in their brain

When drugs such as phenothiazines are given to patients’ that block dopamine in the brain, symptoms of schizophrenia seem to reduce (hallucinations)

A drug called L-Dopa increases dopamine levels in the brain and can induce symptoms of schizophrenia - it has been tested on healthy people.

Dopamine metabolism in schizophrenic patients’ seems to be abnormal,

Question 59

Evaluation of the Dopamine Hypothesis: (AO3)

Answer 59

Advantages
1) There is a great deal of research to support the hypothesis that schizophrenic patients have a high level of dopamine in their brain. E.g research by Davidson found that when schizophrenic patients were given the drug L-Dopa their schizophrenic symptoms got worse.

2) There is a great deal of scientific evidence for the dopamine hypothesis as a cause of schizophrenia. Most of the research has used evidence that have come from PET and fMRI scans which is highly valid and reliable information. This gives scientific and objective data

Disadvantages
1) Cause and effect is not clear. Could it be that an increase in dopamine causes schizophrenia to develop; or could it be that the illness develops first and then this causes dopamine levels to increase

2) Dopamine is is not only associated with the illness of schizophrenia. but also with mania (bipolar depression), and this illness is not alleviated by phenothiazine drugs. Therefore is seems that dopamine has a complex role in the brain and might be associated with many psychological illnesses and not schizophrenia alone

3) The dopamine hypothesis could be viewed as reductionist. It looks at the complicated phenomenon of the causes of schizophrenia and reduces it down to the component of dopamine alone.