Research Methods (cont) Flashcards

Question

standard deviation weaknesses

Answer 1

complex to calculate not quick or easy less meaningful if not normally distributed

Answer 2

should comment on the spread large spread suggests inconsistencies in data, highlighting individual differences larger SD, more spread out, more variability smaller SD, more similar the scores

Answer 3

correlations are co-efficients between -1 and 1 closer the figure to 0, the weaker the correlation closer to 1 or -1, very closely related variables positive = both co-variables increase together negative = one increases while the other decreases zero = no apparent relationship moderate (0.5), strong (0.7), weak (0.3)

Answer 4

likelihood of an event occurring expressed as decimal or percentage inferential statistics necessary to determine whether results are significant or simply due to chance - show which hypothesis to accept or reject - use probability of p <= 0.05 likelihood of the data (in terms of difference or relationship found) being due to random chance is less than or equal to 5%. less than or equal to 5% chance of the null hypothesis being true

Answer 5

false positive / error of optimism claims there is a significant difference when there isn't claims support for research hypothesis with significant result when caused by random variables and not really significant level of significance not cautious enough e.g. p<= 0.10

Answer 6

false negative / error of pessimism accepts null hypothesis, claiming there is no significance when there is an effect beyond chance level of significant too stringent e.g. p<=0.01 - used in medical or safety critical situation

Answer 7

Psychology follows the scientific method – states a theory and uses observations and experiments to test the hypothesis through laboratory or field experiments. The understanding from research is applied to create evidence-based strategies that solve problems and improve lives. * Observation / question * Research * Hypothesis * Experiment * Collect data * Analysis * Conclusion

Answer 8

* When study is bias free of experimenter and there are operationalised definitions of behaviour being used. Also refers to the validity of a measure. * Concepts psychologists measure are not always easily measurable e.g. cognitive processes and attachment, obedience, anxiety can only be interpreted.

Answer 9

 Bias in recruitment or allocation of participants  Investigator effects – cues that influence how participants behave  Confirmation bias – selectively attending to factors confirming hypothesis.  Interpretation of results subject to bias – especially with qualitative data.

Answer 10

 Gather objective, quantitative data  Double blind procedure  Operationalise definitions and use well-defined and clear behavioural categories  Standardised procedures and instructions with consistent measures (e.g. videos)  Controls  Representative sample randomly selected  Interrater reliability checks

Answer 11

* When information is gained through direct observation rather than argument or belief. We should be able to operationalise IV and DV and directly observe them. * Increases reliability and validity of data, increasing levels of certainty and confidence in conclusions.

Answer 12

* Lower levels of Maslow’s hierarchy, as physiological needs are likely to be empirical, as we can see and measure them quite easily.  It becomes harder to measure the higher up the hierarchy we go. * Success of therapy using card sort.  Way of quantifying and operationalising concepts like self-image and ideal self.  Participants place cards with characteristics written on them on a nine-point continuum.  On the initial sort, they had to place them according to how they are at that moment, to measure their true self.  Cards then redistributed according to their ideal self.  Allows for the gap between ideal self and true self to be measured.

Answer 13

* Congruence and self-actualisation are abstract concepts.  Cannot see or measure it.  Difficult to operationalise. * Success of therapy  Subjective experience opposed to empirical research evidence.

Answer 14

* Localisation of function and brain lateralisation  Can observe images of the brain and physically see structures and activity levels without having to make inferences.  Processes can be seen and measured quantitatively. * Role of hormones  Can be measured in an objective and quantifiable way.

Answer 15

* Neurotransmitter levels in the synapse  Measurement not precise enough

Answer 16

* Pavlov measured drops of salivation and Skinner measured behaviour of pressing the lever  Quantifiable and can be easily measured and observed  Behavioural responses can be seen * Bandura measured the number of aggressive or non-aggressive imitative or non-imitative acts.  Behaviour is observable  No inferences need to be made in terms of learning of aggressive responses

Answer 17

* Mediational processes cannot be seen  Must be inferred  Inner mental processes cannot be studied empirically

Answer 18

* Localisation of function, emergence of cognitive neuroscience  Mental processes now able to be observed via imaging  E.g. PET scans show brain activity / where cognition is occurring.  fMRIs measure blood flow so show indirect neural activity / processing.  Produces images and waves that can be quantified.

Answer 19

* To investigate mental processes, some inference is involved  As mental processes cannot be observed  Unscientific and not empirical

Answer 20

* Could argue that consequences of fixation are observable and measurable

Answer 21

 Although impossible to establish whether fixation during psychosexual stages is what causes this * Id, ego and superego, psychosexual stages and the unconscious cannot be observed.  Have to make inferences.

Answer 22

* Opportunity to repeat an investigation under the same conditions in order to check and verify scientific information by finding consistent results. * To draw conclusions, the procedures and findings should be repeatable. Unrepeatable results may imply flaws or lack of control within the method used and are of limited use in theory construction. * Replication increases our confidence in results, suggesting that data is more likely to be valid if findings are consistent.  Reduces the impact of anomalous results. * Strengthens credibility of a theory through repeated attempts to refute and falsify. * Reduces the likelihood of fraud.  Standardised procedures allow other investigators to repeat the experiment to eliminate investigator bias and confirmation bias, resulting in more valid and trustworthy data obtained. * Can also improve generalisability (experimented with different groups of people) and temporal validity (experimented in different eras) of findings.

Answer 23

 Lab studies  Technical equipment like a brain scan  Questionnaires  Observations  Field studies  Unstructured interviews  Case studies

Answer 24

* Popper argued that scientific theories must risk being proved wrong. * What separates a science from a non-science is not the ability to verify it but the ability to falsify the theory (to be able to prove it wrong). * For psychology to be scientific, we have to construct testable hypotheses (deductive method) which have the potential to be falsified. * The inductive method does not yield certainty – no matter how many observations are made that confirm a theory, there is always a possibility that a future observation could refute it. * Increases confidence in results – increases validity. Theory strengthened through repeated attempts at falsification. Reliability of findings supported. Generalisability increased.

Answer 25

* Hypothetical concepts (self-actualisation and congruence) are not directly observable. Inference means falsifiability is not possible.

Answer 26

* Can observe localisation of function / hemispheric lateralisation  Damage can be seen on a scan.  Behavioural changes can be observed. * Can directly manipulate and observe testosterone levels in rats

Answer 27

* Could disprove classical conditioning if Little Albert did not become scared of the rat when it was paired with the loud noises.  Fear response is observable.  Pavlov measured salivation in a quantifiable and measurable way * Operant conditioning can be disproved if Skinner’s rat did not change behaviour after changing stimulus

Answer 28

* Experimentation and hypothesis testing in lab based research can be falsified. * Role of brain areas can be falsified due to use of brain scans. * Case study evidence that cannot be replicated. * Mental processes need to be inferred so cannot be falsified.

Answer 29

* Should follow the scientific method and formulate a hypothesis, operationalise variables and devise a procedure to test this hypothesis. * Must be possible to prove the theory incorrect (falsifiability). * If study yields data that confirms the hypothesis, would confirm the initial idea or existing theory can be developed. * If hypothesis not met, would amend of reject the theory and look for alternative explanations.  Loftus’ research into leading questions (had theory that memory was unreliable and designed an experiment to test it)  Freud’s case study of Little Hans (case study where observations helped develop a theory)

Answer 30

* Allows replication to test for reliability.  Variables operationalised, controlled conditions  If consistent findings produced, establishes validity * Ensures research is falsifiable  Possible to test hypothesis and support the null or alternative hypothesis and confirm or deny theory * Allows for laws and scientific principles to be generated through testing of assumptions and new information.

Answer 31

theory, hypothesis, observation, confirmation

Answer 32

observation, pattern, hypothesis, theory  Scientific method established through inductive method  Theory tested in experimental and falsifiable wat  Start with observations to formulate general hypotheses and test through experimentation.

Answer 33

 Work in Uganda provided observation where she identified different general patterns of attachment, then generated a hypothesis and experiment, then concluded a theory.  Strange situation follows deductive method as she had a theory and used a hypothesis and experiment to measure this, and observations helped reinforce her theory.

Answer 34

 Based on case study evidence and not empirical research.  Observations helped him create a theory with no hypothesis testing or operationalised variables.

Answer 35

 Loftus suggested that eyewitness testimony is unreliable.  Created experiments to support her theory.  Used lab experiment with standardised procedure, questionnaire to limit investigator effects, video clips

Answer 36

 Deductive method – after falsified, hypotheses tested again to develop new drugs

Answer 37

* Kuhn suggests that to be a science, there needed to be a shared set of assumptions that everyone within that discipline agrees on. * Scientific research and thought defined by paradigms that consist of formal theories, experiments and trusted methods. Scientists typically accept a prevailing paradigm and extend its scope by refining theories, explaining data and establishing more precise measures. * Psychology has many approaches with own sets of assumptions and do not agree on one way of thinking (unconscious mind, learning through environment, genetics)

Answer 38

* When a scientific community moves from one established way of explaining / studying human behaviour to another * Must be an improvement and require total change in way subject is viewed * Introspection (Wundt)  studying behaviour (Skinner)  Used empirical methods that are more scientific  Large-scale and highly controlled studies * Cognitive revolution and current emphasis on cognitive neuroscience  Changes how behaviour and internal mental processes are studied  New technology like scanning methods

Answer 39

* Pre-science (no generally accepted paradigm)  Stage psychology is at due to lack of shared paradigms and universal laws of human behaviour.  Can be changed due to existence of new technology. * Normal science (all scientists working from the same paradigm) * Revolutionary science (new model introduced that causes a paradynamic shift)

Answer 40

consistency of the measurement

Answer 41

consistency of results over time and extent to which an measure varies from one use to another

Answer 42

* Internal consistency of a test e.g. psychometric tests and questionnaires. * Extent to which all parts of the test contribute equally to what is being measured.  Split a test into two halves e.g. one half may be even-numbered questions and the other odd-numbered questions.  Administer each half to the same individuals.  Repeat for a large group of individuals.  Plot of a graph and find correlation between scores of both halves.  Higher the correlation between two halves, the higher the internal consistency of test or survey. It indicates that all parts of the test are contributing equally to what is being measured.  Strong positive correlation of 0.8 indicates good internal validity. * Technique works best when there are equal number of questions within a ‘test’ but also when the questions on the test measure the same construct or knowledge area.

Answer 43

* Method assesses external consistency of a test. * Measures stability of a test over time.  Evaluates temporal validity and whether results are still relevant today.  Results may have been affected by current cultural, social, and political norms and not relevant today. * Typical assessment would involve giving participants the same test on two separate occasions. If the same or similar results are obtained, then external reliability is established. Results from both occasions would be compared and correlated.

Answer 44

* Degree to which different raters give consistent estimates of the same behaviour. * Single event is measured simultaneously and independently by two or more trained individuals. If data is similar, then it has external reliability.  If two researchers are observing aggressive behaviour of children, they would both have their subjective opinion regarding what aggression comprises. It would be unlikely that they would record behaviour the same and the data would be unreliable.  If they were to operationalise the behaviour category of aggression this would be more objective and make it easier to identify when a specific behaviour occurs.  ‘Pushing’ is objective and operationalised, so researchers could count how many times children push each other during a certain duration and then compare results.

Answer 45

* If agreement not found in terms of internal and external reliability, researcher will seek to improve the reliability of their test.

Answer 46

 Use scripts / recorded instructions / standardised procedures detailing what researchers should say to limit investigator effects.  Environmental control – specify and carry out in the same environment using the same stimulus materials and control extraneous variables.  More ethical experiments lead to greater credibility.

Answer 47

 Use the same researcher so investigator effects are equalised over all replications – likely to be carried out in the same way.  Clearly operationalise behavioural categories so it is objective what researchers are looking for  Use the same equipment

Answer 48

 Makes all questions weightings the same (same difficulty and importance)  Use quantitative closed questions to limit subjectivity of interpretation.

Answer 49

 Structured interviews allow for less interpretation, leaving more freedom for the research may cause information and cues in each interview to differ – may not get the full picture in some interviews, so comparison is difficult.  Use same equipment so cues given off are the same  Use same interviewer, so mood, demeanour of researcher does not differ, so responses not influenced differently.

Answer 50

accuracy of results and whether they accurately reflect natural behaviour

Answer 51

* Refers to the extent to which you can generalise the findings of a study to other situations, people, settings and measures.

Answer 52

the extent to which the findings of a study can be generalised to alternative / real-life environments.  Could carry out research in a natural environment that uses a tasks that accurately reflects real life behaviour.  E.g. instead of testing participants using artificial word lists in a laboratory environment, they could use a more natural environment such as a classroom, where it is not out of the ordinary to learn and recall word lists. This would help produce more natural behaviour.

Answer 53

the extent to which the sample used in the study is representative of the target population.  Should carry out research using a sample that is representative of the target population.

Answer 54

– the extent to which the findings of a study can be generalised to other time periods. Questioning whether findings would be the same if researchers conducted the study in modern society.  Could repeat the experiment today to test if results remain consistent.

Answer 55

* Measure of whether results obtained are solely affected by changes in the variable being manipulated (i.e. by the independent variable) in a cause-and-effect relationship. * Is the study measuring what it claims to be measuring? * Affected by individual differences, investigator effects, demand characteristics, the Hawthorne effect, extraneous variables in the environment.  Uncontrolled extraneous variables make cause and effect relationships less likely to be established.

Answer 56

* Type of criterion validity (looking at how a test relates to other measures of the same concept) which measures how well a new test compares to a well-established test. * Demonstrated when a test correlates well with a measure that has previously been validated.  When measuring Authoritarian personality, carry out a pilot study with participants who fill in both the f scale and a new questionnaire.

Answer 57

* Whether a test appears to measure what it’s supposed to measure.  Concerned with whether a measure seems relevant and appropriate for what its assessing.  Assesses the degree to which a procedure or test (questionnaire) appears effective in terms of its stated aims.  E.g. does a questionnaire looking at depression effectively measure depressive symptoms in order to provide a trustworthy measure of depression. * Best carried out by someone who is an expert in the field who views the test and makes a judgement as to whether it seems appropriate.

Answer 58

use real-life settings participants are likely to encounter in the real world.

Answer 59

real-life tasks participants are likely to encounter in the real world.

Answer 60

stratified sample – more representative of different sub-groups in a target population and prevents bias favouring a particular group.

Answer 61

repeat in different time periods after temporal shifts

Answer 62

* Use of leading questions – use of open-ended questions. * Bias in allocation of participants to groups – use random sampling to prevent the researcher having any control over allocation. * Measurement criteria when assessing concepts such as ‘aggression’ or ‘obedience’ – create behavioural categories to clearly define specific behaviours they are looking for to reduce subjectivity. * Lack of control over procedure (e.g. amount of time groups get to spend to tasks) – use standardised procedure in controlled environment. * Selective criteria on which data to include. * Interviewer dynamics – use same interviewer so investigator effects are equalised over all participants. * Bias in interpretation of behaviours – use double blind procedure.

Answer 63

* When a participant picks up cues from the study and thus changes their behaviour reducing the internal validity of the study. * Hawthorne effect  Reduced with a covert observations – do not change behaviour because do not know they are being observed. * Social desirability  Reduced with anonymity – answers cannot be traced back so more likely to be more truthful  No fear of appearing undesirable * Demand characteristics  Mild deception and making aims less clear  Do not know full extent of the aims of the study so do no affect behaviour to suit the aims  Independent measures or matched pairs – only take part in one condition so are less likely to guess the aims of the study

Answer 64

PARTICIPANT VARIABLES * Differing individual characteristics of participants in an experiment, sometimes referred to as individual differences. * Type of extraneous variable that can impact the internal validity of research. * E.g. age, gender, education levels * Can be reduced using repeated measures and matched pairs as individual differences do not affect results as either matched on significant characteristics or they take part in both conditions. * Random allocation can avoid researcher bias favouring certain participant groups.

Answer 65

* Is what an extraneous variable becomes when it has an impact on the dependent variable. * Include situational variables, participant variables and investigator effects.  Situational variables reduced by use of lab experiment

Answer 66

* Ensure no leading questions – affect response due to phrasing * Using open questions so no limit to amount and quality of data gathered * Pilot study to test whether questions are useful measurements and whether they provoke an emotional response

Answer 67

* Use event sampling rather than time sampling so that some behaviour are not missed.

Answer 68

* Use more natural environment and task with mundane realism to more accurately represent behaviour in the real world.

Answer 69

data in categories or groups

Answer 70

ranked data or on a made up scale

Answer 71

official standardised scale

Answer 72

bars shouldn't touch comparing multiple groups

Answer 73

correlations

Answer 74

bars touch interval data equal sized intervals of single categories continuous data

Answer 75

nominal results

Answer 76

abstract intro method results discussion referencing

Answer 77

brief summary of report (aims, method, results, conclusions) to determine relevance written last 200 words

Answer 78

brief summary of previous research, hypotheses, purpose and context background introduction, previous studies

Answer 79

how study was carried out design, ppts, materials, variables, controls, sampling, consent for replicability, reliability

Answer 80

purpose, explanation of what required to do, duration, now to withdraw, confidentiality, participant details, space to gather consent and date

Answer 81

purpose, how and when results available, confidentiality, right to withdraw, psych harm, contact for further info

Answer 82

detailed summary of results, descriptive analysis of results graphs, central tendency, dispersion, qualitative data stats

Answer 83

conclusions, limitations placed in context of existing research, highlight direction of future research

Answer 84

Name(s) of author(s) (Surname, followed by initials) - Publication Date -. Article Title - Journal title - Issue - Page Range. Name(s) of author(s) (Surname, followed by initials) - Publication date - Book title - Place of publication - Publisher

Answer 85

avoids bias and controls individual differences equal chance of being allocated to each condition drawing names from hat or computer programme selecting names at random

Answer 86

order effects - practice, fatigue order of conditions mixed up, repeated measures order effects equalised

Answer 87

making groups of items random presentation of trials to avoid systematic errors reduces bias as researcher has no control e.g. difficulty of word lists

Answer 88

procedures kept the same IV affects DV more successfully replicated also standardise materials

Answer 89

avoid leading questions (encouraging particular answer) avoid vagueness / ambiguity avoid double-barrelled questions avoid overly complex phrases or technical jargon organise in order to avoid extraneous variables e.g. order effects or demand characteristics assess validity and reliability

Answer 90

consider qual/quan data open/closed questions structured or unstructured depends on need of interview consider social desirability, bias and ethical issues whether recorded, make notes

Research Methods (cont) Flashcards

content analysis, assessing and improving reliability and validity, probability and significance, features of science, descriptive statistics and display of quantitative data