MEMORY Flashcards
Multi-store model of memory, working memory model, long term memory, explanations of forgetting (interference, retrieval failure), misleading information
Multi-store model of memory
Atkinson and Shiffrin
sensory –> short term –> long term
attention, rehearsal x2, retrieval
encoding
how information processed into memory
capacity
amount of information that can be stored
duration
how long information is stored in memory store before it is forgotten
sensory memory
information obtained from senses
constantly receiving information, more than can be processed
info registered based on sense
visual
auditory
touch
smell
taste
iconic memory
echoic
haptic
olfactory
gustatory
sensory memory
encoding
processed and registered based on its sense within specific region
sensory memory
capacity
very large
all sensory experience
sensory memory
duration
1/4 - 1/2 a second
most info decays unless attention paid, then transferred to short term
sensory memory research evidence
existence
Sperling
4x3 matrix of letters for 0.05 seconds and asked to recall all letters
ppts recalled 4-5 letters and reported seeing more
suggests ppts processed whole of matrix but info quickly decays and is forgotten
sensory memory research evidence
existence
capacity, duration
Sperling variation
same matrix but gives a specific sound after seeing the matrix to prompt them to recall a specific row only
could recall 3-4 letters from whichever row cued
processed whole of matrix since can recall most of letters from which row they were called on (high capacity)
unable to recall all (low duration)
can’t pay attention as do not know which row before
sensory memory research evidence
duration
Treisman
presented identical auditory messages to both ears with slight delay
able to notice messages were identical if delay was <2 seconds
duration of echoic sensory register is 2 secs
sensory memory research evidence
duration, different sensory stores
Crowder
only retains info in iconic memory for a few milliseconds
info in echoic for 2-3 seconds
supports duration of <2 seconds
different senses coded in different ways
multi-modal
short term memory
pay attention to info in sensory memory, pass to short term
forgetting due to displacement (newer info displaces older as not enough room in STM)
retained through rehearsal and transferred to LTM
short term memory capacity
7+/-2 items
short term memory duration
approx. 18-30 seconds
can be extended through maintenance rehearsal (repetition)
info remains in STM or passed into LTM
short term memory encoding
acoustically
short term memory research evidence
capacity
Miller
presented with list of numbers and recalled in sequence
list increases until no longer to recall correctly
could recall 7+/-2 numbers (5-9)
chunking - item does not refer to individual letters or numbers but chunks of information
short term memory research evidence
duration
Peterson and Peterson
ppts recalled trigrams (meaningless three-consonant syllables) presented one at a time
had to be recalled after intervals of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds
asked to count backwards in 3s or 4s from specified random number until red light appeared and had to recall trigram (prevent rehearsal)
longer they had to count backwards, less accurate recall
after 3 secs, 80% recalled correctly
after 6 secs, 50%
after 18 secs, less than 10%
STM has limited duration when rehearsal prevented
short term memory research evidence
encoding
Baddeley
ppts presented with 4 lists of different words
- acoustically similar
- acoustically dissimilar (control)
- semantically similar
- semantically dissimilar (control)
recalled as many as possible in serial order
worse at recalling acoustically similar words - encoding is acoustic
long term memory
info needs to rehearsed significantly in STM to be transferred to LTM
long term memory duration
potentially unlimited
long term memory encoding
semantically
long term memory capacity
unlimited
long term memory research evidence
duration
Bahrick
uni graduates shown photos from high school yearbook and asked to select name that matched photo
90% able to correctly match names and photos 14 years after graduating
60% after 47 years
potentially unlimited duration
long term memory research evidence
encoding
Baddeley
word sequences presented 4 times
ppts spent 20 mins on interference task (STM –> LTM)
asked to recall word list in serial order
harder to recall semantic list in initial phase
–> STM acoustic (semantically similar harder to encode)
recall during retest –> semantically similar easier
–> LTM is semantic
STM and LTM affected differently, different types of encoding
multi-store model of memory strengths
supporting evidence
supporting evidence for 3 separate stores
Miller found ppts could recall 5-9 numbers, as list increased, ppts were no longer able to recall correctly
Baddeley found ppts could recall acoustically similar words initially, but after 20 mins, semantically similar words easier to recall
STM and LTM are different stores
- lacks mundane realism
unnatural tasks e.g. random lists, not indicative of how memory operates irl, unnatural behaviour
+ Bahrick has high task validity
graduates asked to match names to photos in yearbook
multi-store model of memory strengths
supporting case study evidence
high validity
HM suffered from epilepsy, medial temporal lobe and hippocampus removed
seizures stopped, LTM damaged
could recall normal 7 items but could not extend via rehearsal
3 separate stores, info passing is linear
- does not account for Clive Wearing
damage to hippocampus, severe amnesia
STM damaged, cannot hold info for more than 7 seconds (avg = 18-30)
LTM intact for specific info - play piano, cannot remember children
cannot explain how LTM partially impaired, may be multiple memory stores
questions whether linear - STM damaged, LTM intact
multi-store model of memory strengths
practical applications
importance of rehearsal in forming LTM and passing info
advice given to students about consolidating material or revising that rehearsal is significant
LTM can decay if not revisited
improve revision process
multi-store model of memory weaknesses
contradicting evidence
rehearsal does not need to occur for STM –> LTM
‘flash-bulb memories’ - vivid, long-lasting memory of shocking event
info passed straight to LTM, often retrieved without rehearsal
questions necessity of rehearsal
more research needed
working memory model
Baddeley and Hitch
sensory
central executive, visuo-spatial sketchpad, phonological loop (phonological store and articulatory control)
long
working memory model assumptions
focuses on short term memory
multi-component
central executive
supervisory function - controls PL and VSS
decides which info to attend to or ignore
limited capacity
process info from any sense
vague and untestable
cannot falsify
phonological loop
controlled by central executive
written and spoken material
divided into phonological store and articulatory process
phonological store
‘inner ear’
stores info in speech based form
duration of up to 2 secs, after which it decays
can be retained if rehearsal in articulatory process
articulatory process
‘inner voice’
rehearses info verbally
capacity of what can be rehearsed in 2 secs
converts written –> verbal, then transferred to PS
visuo-spatial sketchpad
controlled by central executive
responsible for visual and spatial info
info received from eyes and held in LTM
divided into visual info in the visual cache
and spatial info in inner scribe
episodic buffer
added in 2000
temporary storage system controlled by central executive
responsible for chunking info from VSS and PL into detailed single object/event that can be transferred to LTM
working memory model
research evidence (dual-task)
dual-task technique
- 2 tasks at the same time
- if tasks require use of the same system they cannot be performed successfully together (limited capacity)
- if they use different systems, both performed successfully together and separately
working memory model strengths
research evidence (Baddeley)
dual-task technique using VSS
track point of light moving around a screen and mentally classify angles of letter F
could perform both separately well but when done together, performance at both impaired
if did one at the same time as a verbal task, as good at visual as when performing alone
indicates other systems which work in different ways - certain tasks cannot be performed at the same time
working memory model
research evidence (patient KF)
brain damage, functioned normally but STM severely impaired
could only recall 1 or 2 items rather than 7
forgot faster when received auditorily than visually
had normal STM span for meaningful sounds but words, letters and digits was limited
working memory model strengths
research evidence (Paulesu)
PET scan to record brain activity while performing verbal tasks (PL) or visual tasks (VSS)
different areas of brain were active
- verbal (frontal)
- visual (parietal)
indicates sub-systems
working memory model strengths
practical applications
understanding and supporting people with Alzheimer’s
patients can use VSS and PL independently but have impaired function when used in conjunction
suggests issue with central executive (coordinates diff systems)
teaches people to simplify and not overwhelm
working memory model weaknesses
methodological problems
research support lacks validity
tasks lack mundane realism - unnatural environment and tasks
behaviour produced not valid and generalisable to memory in the real world
working memory model weaknesses
unscientific
details on CE are vague and limited
no info on capacity, role in attention and whether one or more systems
not measured or testable, lacks falsifiability
episodic buffer added to address failure to explain chunking and linking PL and VSS
working memory model weaknesses
contradicting research
cannot explain different types of memory e.g. musical memory
Bertz used dual-task technique using multiple acoustic tasks (PL), could listen to instrumental music without impaired performance on other acoustic tasks
contradicts dual-task (not limited capacity)
contradicts WMM
long term memory
Tulving
declarative (conscious recall)
episodic / semantic
non-declarative (unconscious recall)
procedural
long term memory assumptions
not a single store, split into 2 categories
declarative recalled consciously
- ability to think, explain and describe info with language
- involves some conscious effort - info brought to mind and ‘declared’
non-declarative recalled unconsciously
- abilities and skills expressed through performance
episodic memory
memories of personal life events / experiences
declarative - info needs to be consciously brought to mind
hippocampus and temporal lobe
reference to time and place
easy to forget as become jumbled
semantic memory
memories of meaningful / factual info
declarative - info needs to be consciously brought to mind
hippocampus and temporal lobe
don’t remember when memory acquired
more difficult to forget than episodic but not as much as procedural
procedural memory
memories of motor skills, actions, muscle memory
non-declarative - not consciously aware memorising or recollecting anything
basal ganglia and cerebellum
automatic and unconscious
resistant to forgetting
long term memory strengths
research support
(Clive Wearing)
Clive Wearing, damaged hippocampus, severe amnesia
- STM severely impaired (info decays after 7 seconds)
- LTM intact - can still read, play piano, no memory of children
supports 3 types of LTM (episodic damaged, procedural intact)
long term memory strengths
research support
(HM)
able to develop skill of tracing shape with memory over many days but had no memory of having done it before
procedural intact (muscle memory retained skill) and recalled unconsciously but episodic damaged
long term memory strengths
research support
(neurological evidence)
Duff conducted literature review observing LTM tasks and brain scans
- episodic and semantic associated with brain activity in hippocampus and temporal lobe
- procedural linked to basal ganglia
evidence that 3 separate types, in different areas, with varying activity levels
long term memory strengths
practical application
episodic more susceptible to forgetting as become jumbled, semantic more difficult
procedural resistant –> recollection unconscious and automatic
can develop training specific to different type of memories, help improve memories through cognitive training
long term memory weaknesses
indistinct stores
episodic and semantic not distinct
Tulving - episodic is sub-category of sematic
amnesiacs have functioning semantic and damaged episodic but episodic cannot function if semantic damaged
contradicts theory of separate stores, lacks validity
long term memory weaknesses
methodological issues
lack of generalisability, relies on case studies
Clive Wearing, HM and KM for separate stores
treated with caution as unique cases not representative of healthy brain and memory
long term memory weaknesses
no cause and effect
hard to establish exactly which brain regions affected in patients with brain damage
damage to particular region (hippocampus) does not necessarily mean that region is associated with particular type of memory
displacement
information pushed out due to limited space
MSM says LTM has unlimited capacity
decay
information decays if not used
MSM says LTM has unlimited duration
interference
one piece of info distorts or blocks recall of another
info in LTM becomes confused with others
degree of forgetting greater when memories are similar
proactive interference
old memories interfere with retrieval of newer memories
older memories better rehearsed and more strongly cemented in LTM
easier to recall than recent info
retroactive interference
learning of new info interferes with recall of old info
interference
McGeoch and McDonald
retroactive interference
ppts learnt list of 10 words until could remember with 100% accuracy
then learnt a new list
recalled original list
performance depended on nature of second list
- most similar material (synonyms) produced worst recall
interference strengths
cognitive approach
lab experiment manipulating synonyms and antonym word lists affecting memory
high control over extraneous variables using standardised procedure
high validity, replicability, more scientific and testable
lab lacks ecological validity
artificial environment, no mundane realism, cannot be easily generalised to the real world
have to rely on inference
interference strengths
supporting evidence (magazine adverts)
Burke and Thomas preserved magazine adverts to participants who recalled details
difficulty in recalling earlier adverts and others difficulty recalling later adverts
effect greater when adverts were similar
suggests research is reliable, consistent findings, validity
interference strengths
supporting evidence (street names)
Schmidt tested ppts on whether they could remember street names from childhood
positive relationship between number of times moved and number of street names forgotten
more realistic task w/ greater mundane realism
increases generalisability, applicability to real world
interference weaknesses
mundane realism
Baddeley suggested that tasks are too close to each other and in real life learning and recall are more spread out
not accounting for time in real world
lacks mundane realism and task validity, not representative
interference weaknesses
simplistic
theory is too simplistic
explains forgetting when two sets of info are similar e.g. learning 2 languages, but does not happen very often
doesn’t account for forgetting when there is only one set of info (much more common) or forgetting as a whole (only partial explanation)
suggests other explanations e.g. decay
other reasons e.g. lack of rehearsal
interference weaknesses
descriptive not explanatory
tell us we get confused between two pieces of info and this leads to forgetting but does not explain how or why
no cause and effect - not a complete and comprehensive explanation
retrieval failure
cues serve as prompts to help us recall a memory
when we create new memories, we also store information relating to the environment and mental/emotional state
forgetting occurs because of a lack of cues present at recall (not in same environment or emotional state)
problem with accessibility
encoding specificity principle
Tulving
if cues are to help with recall, the cue must be present at time of learning and recall
if cues available at time of learning are not available at time of recall, there will be some forgetting
context dependent forgetting
forgetting occurs due to lack of external cues in the environment when trying to recall information
environment during recall is different to when learning
e.g. location, temperature, sound, weather, time, other people present
context dependent forgetting
Gooden and Baddeley
asked 18 deep sea divers to learn a list of words either on land or underwater
half of each group asked to recall words in same environment
recall worse for those who recalled in a different environment
can conclude that it is easier to recall info when environment during learning and recall are the same
memory enhanced when there are context-dependent cues
state dependent forgetting
forgetting occurs due to a lack of external cues within a person’s mental/emotional/physical state
if state during recall is different compared to state during learning it will impact ability to recall
e.g. mood, tiredness, medications, sobriety
state dependent forgetting
Goodwin
male students participated in training session and test over 2 days
groups: sober on both days, intoxicated on both, intoxicated on day 1 only, intoxicated on day 2 only
performed avoidance task, verbal role-learning task, word association and picture recognition
tested under same or different conditions
learning transfer better when intoxicated on both days than just one
better at recalling info when repeat same state of mind
state dependent forgetting
application
can help students prepare for exams
should replicate exam experience as much as possible
can help improve recall from witnesses of crimes
interference limitation
only explains one aspect of forgetting
cannot account for forgetting in all instances
only part of the explanation for a more complex process
cue dependent forgetting strengths
supporting evidence
Carter and Cassaday gave hay fever drugs to ppts which made them slightly drowsy and asked them to recall lists of words
recall was worse when state not the same as learning process
supports theory as reinforces idea that internal state at recall needs to similar to state at learning
supports Goodwin’s research on alcohol, consistent results
cue dependent forgetting strengths
practical applications
Smith found that getting ppts to think of the room they were in when they learnt the list was just as effective as being in the same room
useful in all aspects of education, exams, improving attainment
useful in improving eyewitness testimony, need recall to be as accurate as possible due to severity of consequences
cue dependency highly useful explanation
cue dependent forgetting weaknesses
lacks real life application
Baddeley argued that context effects are not very strong in real life
hard to find an environment as different as land and underwater
learning in one room and recalling in another is not going to amount to the same degree of forgetting
less able to explain forgetting in day to day environments
lacks real life application and validity
cue dependent forgetting weaknesses
inferences
encoding specificity principle cannot be tested so have to infer that cues aid recall
e.g. of cue produces successful recall, we assume that cue was encoded at time of learning
no way of scientifically testing whether cue has actually been encoded or not
validity questioned as based on inference and assumptions rather than observable and empirical evidence
misleading questions
contain cues that influence answer
wording indicates desired answer
loaded language
Loftus and Palmer experiment 1 aims
to investigate whether speed estimates of cars in accidents can be influenced by leading questions
Loftus and Palmer experiment 1 procedure
45 uni students shown videos of car crashes
asked ‘about how fast were the cars going when they _____ into each other?’
contacted, bumped, hit, collided or smashed
Loftus and Palmer experiment 1 results
as intensity of verb used increased, so did speed estimates
contacted 31.8
hit 34
bumped 38.1
collided 39.3
smashed 40.8
Loftus and Palmer experiment 1 conclusion
verb conveyed impression of speed car was travelling at, altered ppts’ perceptions
Loftus and Palmer experiment 2 procedure
150 ppts into 3 groups saw video of car crash
either asked smashed, hit or nothing
questioned a week later whether they saw any broken glass but there was none
Loftus and Palmer experiment 2 results
ppts asked how fast they were going when they ‘smashed’ were more likely to report broken glass (16 vs 6)
Loftus and Palmer experiment 2 conclusion
content of question or leading questions can alter one’s memory of an event
response bias explanation
suggests wording of the question does not affect memory but influences how they decide to answer
leading question of ‘smashed’ encourages to choose higher speed estimate
substitution explanation
wording of question changes ppts’ memory
ppts who heard smashed were more likely to report seeing broken glass than those who heard hit
critical verb altered memory of incident
post-event discussion
concerns misleading information being added to memory affecting recall
can cause false memories
confabulation - error in memory where gaps unconsciously filled with fabricated information, confusing imagination with real events
conformity effect
co-witnesses discuss and testimonies become contaminated
combine (mis)information with own memories, may reach consensus view
NSI, ISI
Gabbert
60 uni students and 60 older adults
watched video of girl stealing money
either individual or in pairs
in experiment, had actually seen different videos and only one witnessed the girl stealing
post-event discussion influenced conclusion whether she was guilty or not, even if does not line up with what witnessed
works both way, predominantly people who did not see a crime believed she was guilty (60%), but 30% who saw the crime reported her as innocent
repeat interviewing
increased possibility that comments from interviewer will become incorporated into recollection of events
leads to distortion in memory and decrease in accuracy
eyewitnesses construct ‘memories’ in response to cues from interviewer especially if repeated in questions
confabulation
Krahenbuhl
156 children aged 4-9 watched staged event and interviewed individually a week later
asked 8 open-ended questions, repeated 4 more times
half of the questions were unanswerable
over a quarter of responses to repeated questions changed, resulting in decline in accuracy
number of repetitions and delay intervals had little effect on answerable questions although accuracy to unanswerable questions continued to decline
more often a question was repeated, more likely children were to invent a response
misleading info evaluation
practical applications
Loftus shown distorting effect of leading questions
emphasises need for police to be careful about phrasing when interviewing eyewitnesses
research paved the way for cognitive interview to maximise accuracy
high applicability in real world, useful
misleading info weaknesses
individual differences
age overlooked when considering effects of misleading info
Anastasi found that people in age groups 18-25 and 35-45 were more accurate that people in groups 55-78
all age groups were more accurate when identifying people of their own age group (own age bias)
suggests inaccurate memory can be affected by multiple factors, not just misleading info
overly simplistic and reductionist explanation
misleading info weaknesses
artificial tasks in research
Loftus and Palmer asked ppts to watch videos of car crashes and estimate speed car going at
does not reflect real life experiences, lacks mundane realism
usually heightened emotion which could impact accuracy
also more significant consequences - Foster found that identification of a thief was more accurate when ppts thought they were watching a real robbery and info was used in a trial
simulated research of little importance do not provide same emotional response, so affects ecological validity
misleading info weaknesses
real world research to contradict
Yuille and Cutshall found evidence of greater accuracy in real life recall
witnesses to armed robbery in Canada gave accurate reports of crime 4 months after, despite 2 leading questions
contradicts Loftus’ findings in artificial lab research - suggests behaviour cannot be generalised to real world
findings lack consistency and cannot make reliable conclusion
anxiety
strong emotional and physiological response (arousal)
fear and tension
increased HR and perspiration
can affect EWT by impairing memory recall and causing witnesses to focus on irrelevant details
high levels can lead to overconfidence in accuracy
weapon focus effect
tendency to focus attention on weapon present, limiting ability to remember other details of crime scene e.g. perpetrator’s face
positive effects of anxiety on accuracy
fight or flight response triggered
increases awareness and improves memory as become more aware of cues
e.g. Yuille and Cutshall
Yuille and Cutshall procedure
conducted study of real-life shooting in Vancouver gun shop
shop owner shot a thief dead
interviews held 4-5 months later and compared with original police interviews
witnesses rated how stressed they were on a 7 point scale
Yuille and Cutshall findings
witnesses accurate and little change
some details were less accurate e.g. age, height, weight estimates
participants who reported highest levels of stress were more accurate (88% vs 75%)
negative effects of anxiety on accuracy
causes physiological arousal which prevents us paying attention to important cues, so recall is worse
e.g. Johnson and Scott
Johnson and Scott procedure
ppts thought in lab study
in waiting room amd heard argument in next room
in low anxiety condition, a man walked through the waiting area carrying a pen with grease on his hands
in high anxiety condition, a man walked holding a paper knife covered in blood
Johnson and Scott findings
ppts asked to pick out the man from a set of 50 photos
49% of ppts in low anxiety were able to identify him
33% in high anxiety
tunnel theory of memory argues that witness’ attention narrows to focus on a weapon as it is a source of anxiety
Yerkes-Dodson inverted U hypothesis
as arousal increases, performance increases
after reaching a certain point, any increased arousal will start to have a negative effect
low anxiety results in not much attention paid to environment
some arousal needed to focus and pay attention
high anxiety detrimental to memory recall
anxiety strengths
supporting evidence
Ginet and Verkampt produced evidence that supports Yerkes-Dodson effect
minor details of traffic accident was superior when high anxiety
told ppts that electrodes would give electric shocks
implies that moderate anxiety foes increase accuracy of recall, supporting theory
anxiety weaknesses
lacks ecological validity
Scott and Johnson in lab environment, with artificial events
levels of arousal not representative
results cannot be generalised to how anxiety and EWT operates irl
limited insight
however, natural experiments have more ecological validity e.g. Yuille and Cutshall
anxiety strengths
natural experiments
e.g. Yuille and Cutshall
more ecological validity
greater mundane realism, so behaviour and results more representative of behaviour in real world setting
more generalisable and useful
however, unethical to conduct as can cause trauma and harm, impractical and difficult to carry out convincingly
anxiety weaknesses
weapon focus effect questions
Pickel found that accuracy in identifying the criminal was lowest when holding unexpected item e.g. raw chicken
focus not necessarily narrowed onto weapons due to creating anxiety but because surprising and out of context
research into weapon focus effect not necessarily studying effects of anxiety on recall
anxiety weaknesses
too simplistic
arousal used to measure anxiety
more complex than physiological arousal, with cognitive, emotional and behavioural elements
way we think about stressful incidents can have major effect on what we remember
only provide partial account of relationship between anxiety and recall
anxiety weaknesses
nomothetic approach
assume that all people will respond in the same way and all experience anxiety
fails to account for individual differences, levels of anxiety vary between people due to past experiences, childhood, trauma and physiological arousal
can be argued that research tries to make generalisations
cognitive interview - improving eyewitness testimony
Fisher and Geiselman
need to improve effectiveness of police interviews and techniques when questioning eyewitnesses to retrieve more accurate memories
cognitive interview features
changing the order
report everything
reinstate the context
changing perspective
changing the order
asked to recall events in a different order to original sequence
e.g. end to beginning
prevent reporting expectations of how it must have happened
prevents dishonesty - harder to create untruthful account when reversing, as disrupts formation of narrative
report everything
encouraged to recall every single detail even if unsure of appears irrelevant
may trigger other memories or may be missing piece
reinstate the context
put themselves in the same context when witnessing
actually or mentally returning to scene to aid recall
changing perspective
recall from another’s perspective
disrupts effects of expectations and schema on recall
enhanced cognitive interview
build trusting relationship between interviewer and witness and improves quality of communication
speak slowly
reduce anxiety
not distracting with unnecessary questions or interruptions
asking open-ended questions
speak slowly
add more detail
less rambling
think clearly
reducing anxiety in witness
anxiety may affect recall
interviewer not interrupting or distracting with unnecessary questions
less opportunity for leading questions
forget flow of thought
asking open-ended questions
allow more detail
explain in own words
cognitive interview strengths
supporting evidence
Kohnken - meta-analysis of 42 studies and found that enhanced cognitive interview consistently provided more correct information than standard interview
proved to reliable measure for recall
useful technique to yield more accurate recall
cognitive interview strengths
based on sound psychological research into how human memory works
report everything and state the context based on Tulving’s encoding specificity principle on cue-dependent forgetting
research by Godden and Baddeley suggest that reinstate the context would be a useful technique as they found that divers more likely to recall words in same environment as they were learned in
makes credible and useful
cognitive interview strengths
further supporting evidence
Milne and Bull found that each individual element was equally valuable - provided more info than standard police interview
combination of report everything and context reinstatement produced better recall
confirms usefulness and suggests at least 2 elements should be used
increases credibility
cognitive interview weaknesses
recall of incorrect information also increased
Kohnken found an 81% increase in correct info and 61% increase in incorrect information when enhanced CI used compared to a standard interview
accuracy decreased, limits usefulness and application decreased
cognitive interview weaknesses
only effective for some police officers
need social skills to use techniques effectively
Fisher found that many officers used inappropriate language and interrupted
not useful for all in practice
cognitive interviews weaknesses
more time-consuming
more than standard interview so police may be reluctant
need to establish rapport and relax witness
specialist training may not be provided
unlikely proper version used
lacks practical applications and does not work irl, limited usefulness
