MEMORY

Question 1

Multi-store model of memory

Answer 1

Atkinson and Shiffrin

sensory –> short term –> long term
attention, rehearsal x2, retrieval

Question 2

encoding

Answer 2

how information processed into memory

Question 3

capacity

Answer 3

amount of information that can be stored

Question 4

duration

Answer 4

how long information is stored in memory store before it is forgotten

Question 5

sensory memory

Answer 5

information obtained from senses
constantly receiving information, more than can be processed
info registered based on sense

Question 6

visual
auditory
touch
smell
taste

Answer 6

iconic memory
echoic
haptic
olfactory
gustatory

Question 7

sensory memory
encoding

Answer 7

processed and registered based on its sense within specific region

Question 8

sensory memory
capacity

Answer 8

very large
all sensory experience

Question 9

sensory memory
duration

Answer 9

1/4 - 1/2 a second

most info decays unless attention paid, then transferred to short term

Question 10

sensory memory research evidence
existence

Answer 10

Sperling
4x3 matrix of letters for 0.05 seconds and asked to recall all letters
ppts recalled 4-5 letters and reported seeing more
suggests ppts processed whole of matrix but info quickly decays and is forgotten

Question 11

sensory memory research evidence
existence

capacity, duration

Answer 11

Sperling variation
same matrix but gives a specific sound after seeing the matrix to prompt them to recall a specific row only
could recall 3-4 letters from whichever row cued
processed whole of matrix since can recall most of letters from which row they were called on (high capacity)
unable to recall all (low duration)
can’t pay attention as do not know which row before

Question 12

sensory memory research evidence
duration

Answer 12

Treisman
presented identical auditory messages to both ears with slight delay
able to notice messages were identical if delay was <2 seconds
duration of echoic sensory register is 2 secs

Question 13

sensory memory research evidence
duration, different sensory stores

Answer 13

Crowder
only retains info in iconic memory for a few milliseconds
info in echoic for 2-3 seconds
supports duration of <2 seconds
different senses coded in different ways
multi-modal

Question 14

short term memory

Answer 14

pay attention to info in sensory memory, pass to short term
forgetting due to displacement (newer info displaces older as not enough room in STM)
retained through rehearsal and transferred to LTM

Question 15

short term memory capacity

Answer 15

7+/-2 items

Question 16

short term memory duration

Answer 16

approx. 18-30 seconds
can be extended through maintenance rehearsal (repetition)
info remains in STM or passed into LTM

Question 17

short term memory encoding

Answer 17

acoustically

Question 18

short term memory research evidence
capacity

Answer 18

Miller
presented with list of numbers and recalled in sequence
list increases until no longer to recall correctly
could recall 7+/-2 numbers (5-9)

chunking - item does not refer to individual letters or numbers but chunks of information

Question 19

short term memory research evidence
duration

Answer 19

Peterson and Peterson
ppts recalled trigrams (meaningless three-consonant syllables) presented one at a time
had to be recalled after intervals of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds
asked to count backwards in 3s or 4s from specified random number until red light appeared and had to recall trigram (prevent rehearsal)

longer they had to count backwards, less accurate recall
after 3 secs, 80% recalled correctly
after 6 secs, 50%
after 18 secs, less than 10%

STM has limited duration when rehearsal prevented

Question 20

short term memory research evidence
encoding

Answer 20

Baddeley
ppts presented with 4 lists of different words
- acoustically similar
- acoustically dissimilar (control)
- semantically similar
- semantically dissimilar (control)
recalled as many as possible in serial order
worse at recalling acoustically similar words - encoding is acoustic

Question 21

long term memory

Answer 21

info needs to rehearsed significantly in STM to be transferred to LTM

Question 22

long term memory duration

Answer 22

potentially unlimited

Question 23

long term memory encoding

Answer 23

semantically

Question 24

long term memory capacity

Answer 24

unlimited

Question 25

long term memory research evidence
duration

Answer 25

Bahrick
uni graduates shown photos from high school yearbook and asked to select name that matched photo
90% able to correctly match names and photos 14 years after graduating
60% after 47 years
potentially unlimited duration

Question 26

long term memory research evidence
encoding

Answer 26

Baddeley
word sequences presented 4 times
ppts spent 20 mins on interference task (STM –> LTM)
asked to recall word list in serial order
harder to recall semantic list in initial phase
–> STM acoustic (semantically similar harder to encode)
recall during retest –> semantically similar easier
–> LTM is semantic

STM and LTM affected differently, different types of encoding

Question 27

multi-store model of memory strengths
supporting evidence

Answer 27

supporting evidence for 3 separate stores
Miller found ppts could recall 5-9 numbers, as list increased, ppts were no longer able to recall correctly
Baddeley found ppts could recall acoustically similar words initially, but after 20 mins, semantically similar words easier to recall
STM and LTM are different stores

• lacks mundane realism
  unnatural tasks e.g. random lists, not indicative of how memory operates irl, unnatural behaviour

+ Bahrick has high task validity
graduates asked to match names to photos in yearbook

Question 28

multi-store model of memory strengths
supporting case study evidence

Answer 28

high validity
HM suffered from epilepsy, medial temporal lobe and hippocampus removed
seizures stopped, LTM damaged
could recall normal 7 items but could not extend via rehearsal
3 separate stores, info passing is linear

• does not account for Clive Wearing
  damage to hippocampus, severe amnesia
  STM damaged, cannot hold info for more than 7 seconds (avg = 18-30)
  LTM intact for specific info - play piano, cannot remember children
  cannot explain how LTM partially impaired, may be multiple memory stores
  questions whether linear - STM damaged, LTM intact

Question 29

multi-store model of memory strengths
practical applications

Answer 29

importance of rehearsal in forming LTM and passing info
advice given to students about consolidating material or revising that rehearsal is significant
LTM can decay if not revisited
improve revision process

Question 30

multi-store model of memory weaknesses
contradicting evidence

Answer 30

rehearsal does not need to occur for STM –> LTM
‘flash-bulb memories’ - vivid, long-lasting memory of shocking event
info passed straight to LTM, often retrieved without rehearsal
questions necessity of rehearsal
more research needed

Question 31

working memory model

Answer 31

Baddeley and Hitch

sensory
central executive, visuo-spatial sketchpad, phonological loop (phonological store and articulatory control)
long

Question 32

working memory model assumptions

Answer 32

focuses on short term memory
multi-component

Question 33

central executive

Answer 33

supervisory function - controls PL and VSS
decides which info to attend to or ignore
limited capacity
process info from any sense

vague and untestable
cannot falsify

Question 34

phonological loop

Answer 34

controlled by central executive
written and spoken material

divided into phonological store and articulatory process

Question 35

phonological store

Answer 35

‘inner ear’
stores info in speech based form
duration of up to 2 secs, after which it decays
can be retained if rehearsal in articulatory process

Question 36

articulatory process

Answer 36

‘inner voice’
rehearses info verbally
capacity of what can be rehearsed in 2 secs
converts written –> verbal, then transferred to PS

Question 37

visuo-spatial sketchpad

Answer 37

controlled by central executive
responsible for visual and spatial info
info received from eyes and held in LTM

divided into visual info in the visual cache
and spatial info in inner scribe

Question 38

episodic buffer

Answer 38

added in 2000
temporary storage system controlled by central executive
responsible for chunking info from VSS and PL into detailed single object/event that can be transferred to LTM

Question 39

working memory model
research evidence (dual-task)

Answer 39

dual-task technique
- 2 tasks at the same time
- if tasks require use of the same system they cannot be performed successfully together (limited capacity)
- if they use different systems, both performed successfully together and separately

Question 40

working memory model strengths
research evidence (Baddeley)

Answer 40

dual-task technique using VSS
track point of light moving around a screen and mentally classify angles of letter F
could perform both separately well but when done together, performance at both impaired

if did one at the same time as a verbal task, as good at visual as when performing alone

indicates other systems which work in different ways - certain tasks cannot be performed at the same time

Question 41

working memory model
research evidence (patient KF)

Answer 41

brain damage, functioned normally but STM severely impaired
could only recall 1 or 2 items rather than 7
forgot faster when received auditorily than visually
had normal STM span for meaningful sounds but words, letters and digits was limited

Question 42

working memory model strengths
research evidence (Paulesu)

Answer 42

PET scan to record brain activity while performing verbal tasks (PL) or visual tasks (VSS)
different areas of brain were active
- verbal (frontal)
- visual (parietal)
indicates sub-systems

Question 43

working memory model strengths
practical applications

Answer 43

understanding and supporting people with Alzheimer’s
patients can use VSS and PL independently but have impaired function when used in conjunction
suggests issue with central executive (coordinates diff systems)
teaches people to simplify and not overwhelm

Question 44

working memory model weaknesses
methodological problems

Answer 44

research support lacks validity
tasks lack mundane realism - unnatural environment and tasks
behaviour produced not valid and generalisable to memory in the real world

Question 45

working memory model weaknesses
unscientific

Answer 45

details on CE are vague and limited
no info on capacity, role in attention and whether one or more systems
not measured or testable, lacks falsifiability
episodic buffer added to address failure to explain chunking and linking PL and VSS

Question 45

working memory model weaknesses
contradicting research

Answer 45

cannot explain different types of memory e.g. musical memory
Bertz used dual-task technique using multiple acoustic tasks (PL), could listen to instrumental music without impaired performance on other acoustic tasks
contradicts dual-task (not limited capacity)
contradicts WMM

Question 46

long term memory

Answer 46

Tulving

declarative (conscious recall)
episodic / semantic

non-declarative (unconscious recall)
procedural

Question 47

long term memory assumptions

Answer 47

not a single store, split into 2 categories
declarative recalled consciously
- ability to think, explain and describe info with language
- involves some conscious effort - info brought to mind and ‘declared’

non-declarative recalled unconsciously
- abilities and skills expressed through performance

Question 48

episodic memory

Answer 48

memories of personal life events / experiences
declarative - info needs to be consciously brought to mind
hippocampus and temporal lobe
reference to time and place
easy to forget as become jumbled

Question 49

semantic memory

Answer 49

memories of meaningful / factual info
declarative - info needs to be consciously brought to mind
hippocampus and temporal lobe
don’t remember when memory acquired
more difficult to forget than episodic but not as much as procedural

Question 50

procedural memory

Answer 50

memories of motor skills, actions, muscle memory
non-declarative - not consciously aware memorising or recollecting anything
basal ganglia and cerebellum
automatic and unconscious
resistant to forgetting

Question 51

long term memory strengths
research support
(Clive Wearing)

Answer 51

Clive Wearing, damaged hippocampus, severe amnesia
- STM severely impaired (info decays after 7 seconds)
- LTM intact - can still read, play piano, no memory of children
supports 3 types of LTM (episodic damaged, procedural intact)

Question 52

long term memory strengths
research support
(HM)

Answer 52

able to develop skill of tracing shape with memory over many days but had no memory of having done it before
procedural intact (muscle memory retained skill) and recalled unconsciously but episodic damaged

Question 53

long term memory strengths
research support
(neurological evidence)

Answer 53

Duff conducted literature review observing LTM tasks and brain scans
- episodic and semantic associated with brain activity in hippocampus and temporal lobe
- procedural linked to basal ganglia
evidence that 3 separate types, in different areas, with varying activity levels

Question 54

long term memory strengths
practical application

Answer 54

episodic more susceptible to forgetting as become jumbled, semantic more difficult
procedural resistant –> recollection unconscious and automatic
can develop training specific to different type of memories, help improve memories through cognitive training

Question 55

long term memory weaknesses
indistinct stores

Answer 55

episodic and semantic not distinct
Tulving - episodic is sub-category of sematic
amnesiacs have functioning semantic and damaged episodic but episodic cannot function if semantic damaged
contradicts theory of separate stores, lacks validity

Question 56

long term memory weaknesses
methodological issues

Answer 56

lack of generalisability, relies on case studies
Clive Wearing, HM and KM for separate stores
treated with caution as unique cases not representative of healthy brain and memory

Question 57

long term memory weaknesses
no cause and effect

Answer 57

hard to establish exactly which brain regions affected in patients with brain damage
damage to particular region (hippocampus) does not necessarily mean that region is associated with particular type of memory

Question 58

displacement

Answer 58

information pushed out due to limited space
MSM says LTM has unlimited capacity

Question 59

decay

Answer 59

information decays if not used
MSM says LTM has unlimited duration

Question 60

interference

Answer 60

one piece of info distorts or blocks recall of another
info in LTM becomes confused with others
degree of forgetting greater when memories are similar

Question 61

proactive interference

Answer 61

old memories interfere with retrieval of newer memories

older memories better rehearsed and more strongly cemented in LTM
easier to recall than recent info

Question 62

retroactive interference

Answer 62

learning of new info interferes with recall of old info

Question 63

interference
McGeoch and McDonald

Answer 63

retroactive interference
ppts learnt list of 10 words until could remember with 100% accuracy
then learnt a new list
recalled original list
performance depended on nature of second list
- most similar material (synonyms) produced worst recall

Question 64

interference strengths
cognitive approach

Answer 64

lab experiment manipulating synonyms and antonym word lists affecting memory
high control over extraneous variables using standardised procedure
high validity, replicability, more scientific and testable

lab lacks ecological validity
artificial environment, no mundane realism, cannot be easily generalised to the real world
have to rely on inference

Question 65

interference strengths
supporting evidence (magazine adverts)

Answer 65

Burke and Thomas preserved magazine adverts to participants who recalled details
difficulty in recalling earlier adverts and others difficulty recalling later adverts
effect greater when adverts were similar
suggests research is reliable, consistent findings, validity

Question 66

interference strengths
supporting evidence (street names)

Answer 66

Schmidt tested ppts on whether they could remember street names from childhood
positive relationship between number of times moved and number of street names forgotten
more realistic task w/ greater mundane realism
increases generalisability, applicability to real world

Question 67

interference weaknesses
mundane realism

Answer 67

Baddeley suggested that tasks are too close to each other and in real life learning and recall are more spread out
not accounting for time in real world
lacks mundane realism and task validity, not representative

Question 68

interference weaknesses
simplistic

Answer 68

theory is too simplistic
explains forgetting when two sets of info are similar e.g. learning 2 languages, but does not happen very often
doesn’t account for forgetting when there is only one set of info (much more common) or forgetting as a whole (only partial explanation)
suggests other explanations e.g. decay
other reasons e.g. lack of rehearsal

Question 69

interference weaknesses
descriptive not explanatory

Answer 69

tell us we get confused between two pieces of info and this leads to forgetting but does not explain how or why
no cause and effect - not a complete and comprehensive explanation

Question 70

retrieval failure

Answer 70

cues serve as prompts to help us recall a memory
when we create new memories, we also store information relating to the environment and mental/emotional state

forgetting occurs because of a lack of cues present at recall (not in same environment or emotional state)
problem with accessibility

Question 71

encoding specificity principle

Answer 71

Tulving
if cues are to help with recall, the cue must be present at time of learning and recall
if cues available at time of learning are not available at time of recall, there will be some forgetting

Question 72

context dependent forgetting

Answer 72

forgetting occurs due to lack of external cues in the environment when trying to recall information
environment during recall is different to when learning
e.g. location, temperature, sound, weather, time, other people present

Question 73

context dependent forgetting
Gooden and Baddeley

Answer 73

asked 18 deep sea divers to learn a list of words either on land or underwater
half of each group asked to recall words in same environment
recall worse for those who recalled in a different environment

can conclude that it is easier to recall info when environment during learning and recall are the same
memory enhanced when there are context-dependent cues

Question 74

state dependent forgetting

Answer 74

forgetting occurs due to a lack of external cues within a person’s mental/emotional/physical state
if state during recall is different compared to state during learning it will impact ability to recall
e.g. mood, tiredness, medications, sobriety

Question 75

state dependent forgetting
Goodwin

Answer 75

male students participated in training session and test over 2 days
groups: sober on both days, intoxicated on both, intoxicated on day 1 only, intoxicated on day 2 only

performed avoidance task, verbal role-learning task, word association and picture recognition

tested under same or different conditions
learning transfer better when intoxicated on both days than just one
better at recalling info when repeat same state of mind

Question 76

state dependent forgetting
application

Answer 76

can help students prepare for exams
should replicate exam experience as much as possible

can help improve recall from witnesses of crimes

Question 77

interference limitation

Answer 77

only explains one aspect of forgetting
cannot account for forgetting in all instances
only part of the explanation for a more complex process

Question 78

cue dependent forgetting strengths
supporting evidence

Answer 78

Carter and Cassaday gave hay fever drugs to ppts which made them slightly drowsy and asked them to recall lists of words
recall was worse when state not the same as learning process
supports theory as reinforces idea that internal state at recall needs to similar to state at learning

supports Goodwin’s research on alcohol, consistent results

Question 79

cue dependent forgetting strengths
practical applications

Answer 79

Smith found that getting ppts to think of the room they were in when they learnt the list was just as effective as being in the same room
useful in all aspects of education, exams, improving attainment
useful in improving eyewitness testimony, need recall to be as accurate as possible due to severity of consequences
cue dependency highly useful explanation

Question 80

cue dependent forgetting weaknesses
lacks real life application

Answer 80

Baddeley argued that context effects are not very strong in real life
hard to find an environment as different as land and underwater
learning in one room and recalling in another is not going to amount to the same degree of forgetting
less able to explain forgetting in day to day environments
lacks real life application and validity

Question 81

cue dependent forgetting weaknesses
inferences

Answer 81

encoding specificity principle cannot be tested so have to infer that cues aid recall
e.g. of cue produces successful recall, we assume that cue was encoded at time of learning
no way of scientifically testing whether cue has actually been encoded or not
validity questioned as based on inference and assumptions rather than observable and empirical evidence

Question 82

misleading questions

Answer 82

contain cues that influence answer
wording indicates desired answer
loaded language

Question 83

Loftus and Palmer experiment 1 aims

Answer 83

to investigate whether speed estimates of cars in accidents can be influenced by leading questions

Question 84

Loftus and Palmer experiment 1 procedure

Answer 84

45 uni students shown videos of car crashes
asked ‘about how fast were the cars going when they _____ into each other?’
contacted, bumped, hit, collided or smashed

Question 85

Loftus and Palmer experiment 1 results

Answer 85

as intensity of verb used increased, so did speed estimates
contacted 31.8
hit 34
bumped 38.1
collided 39.3
smashed 40.8

Question 86

Loftus and Palmer experiment 1 conclusion

Answer 86

verb conveyed impression of speed car was travelling at, altered ppts’ perceptions

Question 87

Loftus and Palmer experiment 2 procedure

Answer 87

150 ppts into 3 groups saw video of car crash
either asked smashed, hit or nothing
questioned a week later whether they saw any broken glass but there was none

Question 88

Loftus and Palmer experiment 2 results

Answer 88

ppts asked how fast they were going when they ‘smashed’ were more likely to report broken glass (16 vs 6)

Question 89

Loftus and Palmer experiment 2 conclusion

Answer 89

content of question or leading questions can alter one’s memory of an event

Question 90

response bias explanation

Answer 90

suggests wording of the question does not affect memory but influences how they decide to answer
leading question of ‘smashed’ encourages to choose higher speed estimate

Question 91

substitution explanation

Answer 91

wording of question changes ppts’ memory
ppts who heard smashed were more likely to report seeing broken glass than those who heard hit
critical verb altered memory of incident

Question 92

post-event discussion

Answer 92

concerns misleading information being added to memory affecting recall
can cause false memories
confabulation - error in memory where gaps unconsciously filled with fabricated information, confusing imagination with real events

Question 93

conformity effect

Answer 93

co-witnesses discuss and testimonies become contaminated
combine (mis)information with own memories, may reach consensus view
NSI, ISI

Question 94

Gabbert

Answer 94

60 uni students and 60 older adults
watched video of girl stealing money
either individual or in pairs

in experiment, had actually seen different videos and only one witnessed the girl stealing

post-event discussion influenced conclusion whether she was guilty or not, even if does not line up with what witnessed
works both way, predominantly people who did not see a crime believed she was guilty (60%), but 30% who saw the crime reported her as innocent

Question 95

repeat interviewing

Answer 95

increased possibility that comments from interviewer will become incorporated into recollection of events
leads to distortion in memory and decrease in accuracy

eyewitnesses construct ‘memories’ in response to cues from interviewer especially if repeated in questions
confabulation

Question 96

Krahenbuhl

Answer 96

156 children aged 4-9 watched staged event and interviewed individually a week later
asked 8 open-ended questions, repeated 4 more times
half of the questions were unanswerable
over a quarter of responses to repeated questions changed, resulting in decline in accuracy
number of repetitions and delay intervals had little effect on answerable questions although accuracy to unanswerable questions continued to decline
more often a question was repeated, more likely children were to invent a response

Question 97

misleading info evaluation
practical applications

Answer 97

Loftus shown distorting effect of leading questions
emphasises need for police to be careful about phrasing when interviewing eyewitnesses
research paved the way for cognitive interview to maximise accuracy
high applicability in real world, useful

Question 98

misleading info weaknesses
individual differences

Answer 98

age overlooked when considering effects of misleading info
Anastasi found that people in age groups 18-25 and 35-45 were more accurate that people in groups 55-78
all age groups were more accurate when identifying people of their own age group (own age bias)
suggests inaccurate memory can be affected by multiple factors, not just misleading info
overly simplistic and reductionist explanation

Question 99

misleading info weaknesses
artificial tasks in research

Answer 99

Loftus and Palmer asked ppts to watch videos of car crashes and estimate speed car going at
does not reflect real life experiences, lacks mundane realism
usually heightened emotion which could impact accuracy
also more significant consequences - Foster found that identification of a thief was more accurate when ppts thought they were watching a real robbery and info was used in a trial
simulated research of little importance do not provide same emotional response, so affects ecological validity

Question 100

misleading info weaknesses
real world research to contradict

Answer 100

Yuille and Cutshall found evidence of greater accuracy in real life recall
witnesses to armed robbery in Canada gave accurate reports of crime 4 months after, despite 2 leading questions
contradicts Loftus’ findings in artificial lab research - suggests behaviour cannot be generalised to real world
findings lack consistency and cannot make reliable conclusion

Question 101

anxiety

Answer 101

strong emotional and physiological response (arousal)
fear and tension
increased HR and perspiration
can affect EWT by impairing memory recall and causing witnesses to focus on irrelevant details
high levels can lead to overconfidence in accuracy

Question 102

weapon focus effect

Answer 102

tendency to focus attention on weapon present, limiting ability to remember other details of crime scene e.g. perpetrator’s face

Question 103

positive effects of anxiety on accuracy

Answer 103

fight or flight response triggered
increases awareness and improves memory as become more aware of cues
e.g. Yuille and Cutshall

Question 104

Yuille and Cutshall procedure

Answer 104

conducted study of real-life shooting in Vancouver gun shop
shop owner shot a thief dead
interviews held 4-5 months later and compared with original police interviews
witnesses rated how stressed they were on a 7 point scale

Question 105

Yuille and Cutshall findings

Answer 105

witnesses accurate and little change
some details were less accurate e.g. age, height, weight estimates
participants who reported highest levels of stress were more accurate (88% vs 75%)

Question 106

negative effects of anxiety on accuracy

Answer 106

causes physiological arousal which prevents us paying attention to important cues, so recall is worse
e.g. Johnson and Scott

Question 107

Johnson and Scott procedure

Answer 107

ppts thought in lab study
in waiting room amd heard argument in next room
in low anxiety condition, a man walked through the waiting area carrying a pen with grease on his hands
in high anxiety condition, a man walked holding a paper knife covered in blood

Question 108

Johnson and Scott findings

Answer 108

ppts asked to pick out the man from a set of 50 photos
49% of ppts in low anxiety were able to identify him
33% in high anxiety
tunnel theory of memory argues that witness’ attention narrows to focus on a weapon as it is a source of anxiety

Question 109

Yerkes-Dodson inverted U hypothesis

Answer 109

as arousal increases, performance increases
after reaching a certain point, any increased arousal will start to have a negative effect
low anxiety results in not much attention paid to environment
some arousal needed to focus and pay attention
high anxiety detrimental to memory recall

Question 110

anxiety strengths
supporting evidence

Answer 110

Ginet and Verkampt produced evidence that supports Yerkes-Dodson effect
minor details of traffic accident was superior when high anxiety
told ppts that electrodes would give electric shocks
implies that moderate anxiety foes increase accuracy of recall, supporting theory

Question 111

anxiety weaknesses
lacks ecological validity

Answer 111

Scott and Johnson in lab environment, with artificial events
levels of arousal not representative
results cannot be generalised to how anxiety and EWT operates irl
limited insight

however, natural experiments have more ecological validity e.g. Yuille and Cutshall

Question 112

anxiety strengths
natural experiments

Answer 112

e.g. Yuille and Cutshall
more ecological validity
greater mundane realism, so behaviour and results more representative of behaviour in real world setting
more generalisable and useful

however, unethical to conduct as can cause trauma and harm, impractical and difficult to carry out convincingly

Question 113

anxiety weaknesses
weapon focus effect questions

Answer 113

Pickel found that accuracy in identifying the criminal was lowest when holding unexpected item e.g. raw chicken
focus not necessarily narrowed onto weapons due to creating anxiety but because surprising and out of context
research into weapon focus effect not necessarily studying effects of anxiety on recall

Question 114

anxiety weaknesses
too simplistic

Answer 114

arousal used to measure anxiety
more complex than physiological arousal, with cognitive, emotional and behavioural elements
way we think about stressful incidents can have major effect on what we remember
only provide partial account of relationship between anxiety and recall

Question 115

anxiety weaknesses
nomothetic approach

Answer 115

assume that all people will respond in the same way and all experience anxiety
fails to account for individual differences, levels of anxiety vary between people due to past experiences, childhood, trauma and physiological arousal
can be argued that research tries to make generalisations

Question 116

cognitive interview - improving eyewitness testimony

Answer 116

Fisher and Geiselman
need to improve effectiveness of police interviews and techniques when questioning eyewitnesses to retrieve more accurate memories

Question 117

cognitive interview features

Answer 117

changing the order
report everything
reinstate the context
changing perspective

Question 118

changing the order

Answer 118

asked to recall events in a different order to original sequence
e.g. end to beginning
prevent reporting expectations of how it must have happened
prevents dishonesty - harder to create untruthful account when reversing, as disrupts formation of narrative

Question 119

report everything

Answer 119

encouraged to recall every single detail even if unsure of appears irrelevant
may trigger other memories or may be missing piece

Question 120

reinstate the context

Answer 120

put themselves in the same context when witnessing
actually or mentally returning to scene to aid recall

Question 121

changing perspective

Answer 121

recall from another’s perspective
disrupts effects of expectations and schema on recall

Question 122

enhanced cognitive interview

Answer 122

build trusting relationship between interviewer and witness and improves quality of communication

speak slowly
reduce anxiety
not distracting with unnecessary questions or interruptions
asking open-ended questions

Question 123

speak slowly

Answer 123

add more detail
less rambling
think clearly

Question 124

reducing anxiety in witness

Answer 124

anxiety may affect recall

Question 125

interviewer not interrupting or distracting with unnecessary questions

Answer 125

less opportunity for leading questions
forget flow of thought

Question 126

asking open-ended questions

Answer 126

allow more detail
explain in own words

Question 127

cognitive interview strengths
supporting evidence

Answer 127

Kohnken - meta-analysis of 42 studies and found that enhanced cognitive interview consistently provided more correct information than standard interview
proved to reliable measure for recall
useful technique to yield more accurate recall

Question 128

cognitive interview strengths
based on sound psychological research into how human memory works

Answer 128

report everything and state the context based on Tulving’s encoding specificity principle on cue-dependent forgetting
research by Godden and Baddeley suggest that reinstate the context would be a useful technique as they found that divers more likely to recall words in same environment as they were learned in
makes credible and useful

Question 129

cognitive interview strengths
further supporting evidence

Answer 129

Milne and Bull found that each individual element was equally valuable - provided more info than standard police interview
combination of report everything and context reinstatement produced better recall
confirms usefulness and suggests at least 2 elements should be used
increases credibility

Question 130

cognitive interview weaknesses
recall of incorrect information also increased

Answer 130

Kohnken found an 81% increase in correct info and 61% increase in incorrect information when enhanced CI used compared to a standard interview
accuracy decreased, limits usefulness and application decreased

Question 131

cognitive interview weaknesses
only effective for some police officers

Answer 131

need social skills to use techniques effectively
Fisher found that many officers used inappropriate language and interrupted
not useful for all in practice

Question 132

cognitive interviews weaknesses
more time-consuming

Answer 132

more than standard interview so police may be reluctant
need to establish rapport and relax witness
specialist training may not be provided
unlikely proper version used
lacks practical applications and does not work irl, limited usefulness