ATTACHMENT Flashcards
complete --> reciprocity, interactional synchrony, Schaffer and Emerson, animal studies of attachment, learning theory of attachment, institutionalisation, influence of early attachment, Bowlby's monotropic theory, strange situation, maternal deprivation
attachment definition
strong emotional bond between a caregiver and infant, in which each seeks closeness and feels more secure when in the presence of the attachment figure
reciprocal and enduring
Maccoby’s characteristics
proximity seeking
separation anxiety
pleasure when reunited
general orientation of behaviour
proximity seeking
desire to be close to the person to whom you are attached
separation anxiety
distress that results from being separated from attachment figure
pleasure when reunited
relief and observable joy when reunited
general orientation of behaviour
child’s awareness of where that person is and the reassurance they feel from being close
caregiver-infant interactions
mother-infant bond develops in the first year of life
non-verbal communication lays foundation for attachment development
more responsive or sensitive, the deeper the attachment
reciprocity
develops at 3 months
two-way mutual process, respond to each other’s signals to sustain interactions (turn-taking)
increases in frequency and amount of attention paid to verbal and facial communication (3 months +)
elicits a response from the other
show sensitive responsiveness
Tronick et al ‘Still Face Study’
research into reciprocity
mother and baby would interact normally and get reactions out of each other
mother stares motionless at the baby and didn’t respond
baby tries to regain mother’s attention and becomes distressed and cries
interactional synchrony
caregiver and infant reflect actions and emotions of each other in a synchronised way
mirror facial and body movements
sustains communication and helps develop an attachment
Isabella et al
research into interactional synchrony
observed 30 mothers and infants together and assessed degree of synchrony
correlation established between stongly attached infants and greater interactional synchrony
reciprocity vs interactional synchrony
RECIPROCITY - turn taking in speech, respond to each other, elicit responses
INTERACTIONAL SYNCHRONY - mirroring behaviour, coordinating movement
Meltzoff and Moore
research into interactional synchrony
procedure
observed 2-week old infants
adult would display 1/3 expressions or gestures
infant’s response was filmed and identified
observers didn’t know what the infants had seen
Meltzoff and Moore
research into interactional synchrony
conclusions
found an association between adults and babies’ expressions and gestures
suggests this behaviour is innate rather than learnt
imitations were intentional and began to acquire understanding of others’ feelings and thoughts –> fundamental for social relationships
Meltzoff and Moore
research into interactional synchrony
strengths
controlled, overt, non-participant observation
used independent observer
could not see adults so did not know what the adults had seen
not influenced by each other
decreases bias (less inclined to be incorrectly convinced of what the baby is doing)
good replicability - standardised procedures, filmed for consistency
more ethical than experiment - not unreasonable interaction, no harm
Meltzoff and Moore
research into interactional synchrony
weaknesses
controlled experiment - unnatural behaviour
demand characteristics - would not affect babies who would understand or know how to act
caregiver-infant interactions evaluation
strengths
well controlled research studies
- interactions filmed from multiple angles –> fine details recorded and analysed
- conclusions more valid –> inter-rater reliability established from independent researchers who re-watched and compared results
practical applications
- understanding impact on attachment bond is useful to wider society
- can encourage closer attachments –> leads to better future relationships, less likely to develop mental health issues
- help implement programmes for parents
caregiver-infant interactions evaluation
weaknesses
interpretation issues
- Meltzoff and Moore - difficult to interpret facial expressions
- may be some differences in how far facial expressions are replicated
- assuming that babies are imitating what they see, but do not know why (could just be due to chance)
- other studies (Koepke) failed to replicate findings –> lacks replicability and consistency
purpose is unclear
- findings do not tell us why such behaviours occur
- some research suggests that interactions are helpful in development but some don’t
—— Le Vine reported that Kenyan mothers have little physical contact or interaction with infants, but they still develop secure attachments
- lacks population validity and generalisability
- not necessary for development
pseudo-imitation
- child only responding to expressions rather than interacting
- casts doubt on purpose of attachments and role in social development
social sensitivity
- interactions affect quality of attachment
- indicate that low interaction leads to insecure attachment which may lead into adulthood
- places blame of poor development on mother
cause and effect issues
- Isabella found association between strongly attached infants and caregivers and greater interactional synchrony
- can’t conclude why interactions or imitations occur
- only a correlation, no cause and effect established
stages of attachment
asocial
indiscriminate attachments
specific attachments
multiple attachments
Schaffer and Emerson aims
to investigate whether attachments develops through a series of stages
to see whether any stages found were common in all infants
Schaffer and Emerson procedure
longitudinal study
sample of 60 babies from working class in Glasgow
data collected through observations in homes every 4 weeks until the age of one and again at 18 months
interviews conducted with families
mothers asked to record evidence
Schaffer and Emerson
what 3 measures were mothers asked to record evidence for?
STRANGER ANXIETY - response to arrival of stranger
SEPARATION ANXIETY - distress level when separated from carer (e.g. full-blown cry or whimper)
SOCIAL REFERENCING - degree to which child used mother as a secure base
Schaffer and Emerson
results
mother was main attachment figure for half of the 18-month-olds (other half was the father)
at 8 months old, 50 had more than one attachment
20 either had no attachment with their mother or had a stronger attachment with someone else even though the mother was the main carer
Schaffer and Emerson
conclusions
infants do form attachments in stages and can attach to many people
suggests that attachment is innate (same trend at same age)
quality of care is important - may not attach to mother if others are more sensitive or caring (sensitive responsiveness)
Schaffer and Emerson strengths
large sample size = 60 babies
standardised interviews, can replicate to check consistency and reliability
good applicability - know what may cause distress or understand what is healthy / normal
Schaffer and Emerson weaknesses
lacks ecological validity and generalisability
- from Glasgow, working class families
- e.g. others may have a nanny or have different family dynamics
- only in individualistic community
interpreting behaviour is subjective
babies not all approached at same age
interviews influenced by social desirability, sensitive topic, reduced validity
asocial
0-6 weeks
many kinds of stimuli produce a favourable reaction in infant
towards end of this stage, infant learns to separate people from objects but doesn’t have any strong preference about who cares for them
indiscriminate attachments
within first 6 months
infant starts to clearly distinguish and recognise different people, smiling more at people they know compared to strangers
still not strong preference as to who cares for them
specific attachments
7-9 months
infant will form true, emotionally strong attachments with specific people
content when a specific person is around, distressed when they leave and happy when they return
may show stranger anxiety
multiple attachments
10 months +
infant can form attachments to many people
secondary attachments e.g. siblings, grandparents
some may be stronger than others and have different functions e.g. play or comfort
doesn’t seem to be a limit to the number of attachments infant can form
stages of attachment strengths
children with multiple attachments are at an advantage as they can form and conduct social relationships more easily
- have experience, if lose an attachment figure, have others to turn to
Harlow’s research into rhesus monkeys supports idea that quality of care is more important than caregiver’s presence
stages of attachment weaknesses
culturally biased
- Sagi found that infants raised in individualistic cultures were twice as close to their mothers in comparison to those raised by collectivist cultures
- Schaffer and Emerson’s study was only carried out in Glasgow so is difficult to universally apply
difficulty measuring multiple attachments
- baby may be distressed when individual leaves the room, does not mean they are ‘true’ attachment figure
- Bowlby pointed out that children have playmates as well as attachment figures and may get distressed when playmates leave
- contradicts Schaffer and Emerson’s stages of attachment because observations does not distinguish between secondary attachment figures and playmates
during first week, babies have poor coordination and are immobile
- difficult to make judgements based on first observations
- e.g. how can we really know if they favour a smile just as much as an inanimate object based on little behavioural cues
- evidence hard to rely on
multiple attachments
infants tend to show attachment behaviours towards multiple, secondary attachment figures by one year old
tend to be people who spend regular time with the infant
typical attachment behaviours
stranger anxiety
separation anxiety
proximity seeking behaviours
imitation and interactional synchrony
role of the father
babies + fathers
less likely than mothers to be baby’s first attachment figure
–> Schaffer and Emerson found that most babies become attached to their mother at around 7 months
–> in 27% of cases the father was joint-first attachment figure
–> 3% of cases the father was the first sole attachment figure
also found that 75% of babies formed an attachment with their father by 18 months, suggesting that most fathers become important attachment figures
role of the father
father’s role in attachment
fathers have a different unique role to mothers that is still important for development
–> more to do with play and stimulation than emotional development
generally more playful, physically active and better at providing challenging situations for children
–> excite children and encourage risk-taking
–> create secure environment to learn bravery
complements mother’s role of being attuned to emotional needs
father’s role in attachment
research evidence
Grossmann carried out a longitudinal study where babies’ attachments were studied until they were teenagers
–> no link between father’s early attachment type and quality of attachment in adolescence but link was found with mothers
–> quality of attachment not linked to healthy attachment in adolescence
–> link between quality of play and quality of attachment
supports idea that father’s role is different
role of the father
fathers as primary attachment figures
baby’s first/primary attachment has special emotional significance as it forms the basis of all later close emotional relationships
–> some evidence that when fathers take on the role of the primary attachment figure, they are able to adapt into traditional maternal role
role of the father
strengths
supporting evidence that fathers can be primary attachment figures and the gender of the parent is unimportant
- Field found that primary caregiver fathers spend more time smiling, imitating and holding their babies than secondary caregiver fathers
- supports idea that fathers have the potential to be more emotion-focused primary attachment figure and can take on a traditional maternal role, providing the responsiveness required for a close emotional attachment
supporting evidence for father’s role in play and stimulation being important for healthy development
- Grossmann found that adolescent attachment to the father is related to the father’s play with infants
role of the father
weaknesses
inconsistency in research about distinctiveness of role of father
- Grossmann argued that role is play and stimulation
- Maccallum and Golombok found that children in single-mother and lesbian-parent families do not develop differently
- questions whether fathers have a distinctive role remains unanswered and many suggest that anyone can take the role of play and stimulation
preconceptions about the role of the father may lead to observer bias in research
- reduces validity of findings
research may not be generalisable
- individual differences
–> assume that all fathers are happy, playful and risk-takers whereas personality can affect e.g. depression means not in a positive, active mood
institutionalisation
- Refers to effects of growing up in an orphanage or children’s home.
- Living arrangements outside of family home may lead to loss of personal identity.
- May suffer from lack of emotional care and have difficulty forming attachments.
–> More children so less attention from carers
–> Likely to be cared for by multiple carers, so one primary attachment is not able to form.
institutionalisation context
Romania 1990s
Was a requirement of women to have 5 children to improve economic growth.
Abortion and contraception for women under 40 with fewer than 4 children was forbidden in 1966.
After the decree, birth rates rose significantly from 1967 to 1969 to catastrophic numbers.
Coupled with Romania’s poverty, many unwanted children were turned over to state orphanages.
Rutter’s ERA study (English and Romanian adoptees)
aims
- Examines development of children adopted into the UK from Romania in the early 1990s.
- Examine the extent to which children could recover when extreme deprivation in early life is followed by a middle childhood within a safe family environment.
Rutter’s ERA study (English and Romanian adoptees)
procedure
- Longitudinal natural experiment
- Random sample of 165 Romanian children placed in orphanages at 1-2 weeks with little adult contact. Most lived in institutions with conditions from poor to abysmal.
- Physical, cognitive and emotional development assessed at ages 4, 6, 11 and 15.
- A group of 52 British children adopted around the same time served as a control group.
Mean IQ aged 11
Romanian Orphans adopted before six months 102
Romanian Orphans adopted between six months and two years 86
Romanian Orphans adopted after two years 77
differences remained at age 16
Rutter’s ERA study (English and Romanian adoptees)
findings
intellectual development
- When they first arrived in the UK, half of the adoptees showed signs of delayed intellectual development / delayed cognitive functioning and were underweight.
- The control group did not show these deficits.
- Over time, the Romanian orphans showed improvements in physical and cognitive development, but rates of improvement varied dramatically according to the age in which the children had been adopted (differential rates of recovery).
Rutter’s ERA study (English and Romanian adoptees)
findings
attachment issues
Attachment issues
Romanian Orphans adopted before six months
Disinhibited attachment was rare.
Romanian Orphans adopted after 6 months
Showed disinhibited attachment attention seeking, clinginess and social behaviour indiscriminately towards familiar and unfamiliar adults.
Unusual to not show stranger anxiety.
* Disinhibited attachment persisted in many adoptees at age 6 and in over 50% at age 11.
Rutter’s ERA study (English and Romanian adoptees)
conclusions
attachment issues
- In institutions display disinhibited attachment as are cared for by many different caregivers and not enough by one to form an attachment.
- This can be overcome with sensitive subsequent care.
- Children in institutional care may have difficulty interacting with peers and forming close relationships due to a lack of an internal working model.
- May also have difficulty with affection and understanding the meaning of social contexts and may display obsessional behaviour (quasi autism).
Rutter’s ERA study (English and Romanian adoptees)
conclusions
intellectual development
- Children who experience extreme institutional deprivation will usually make a huge improvement in cognitive functioning following successful adoption, suggesting that effects can be overcome with sensitive and nurturing care.
- Damage could be recovered if attachment took place before 6 months.
- Sooner the children were adopted, the faster their intellectual development.
Bucharest early intervention project
- Attachment assessed in 95 children aged 12-31 months who had spent most of their lives in institutional care, 90% on average.
- Compared to control group of 50 children who had never lived in an institution.
- Attachment type measured using the strange situation.
- Carers asked to comment on social behaviours of children.
- Control group – 74% securely attached. Less than 20% disinhibited attachment.
- Institution group – 19% securely attached. 44% disinhibited attachment.
- Institutionalised children showed signs of disinhibited attachment where child seeks comfort and attachment from anyone without distinction – no preference for parents over strangers. Often clingy and attention seeking.
- Suggests that institutionalisation leads to disinhibited attachment – do not spend enough time with one particular caregiver for an attachment to form, but spend time with lots of caregivers.
institutionalisation evaluation
real life applications
Enhanced understanding of negative effects of institutionalisation where children are unable to develop normal attachments.
Disinhibited attachment comes from not spending enough time with a particular carer for an attachment to form.
Leads to improvements e.g. avoid having lots of caregivers for each child and ensure that one or two key workers play a central role for a child. Allows a normal attachment to form.
institutionalisation evaluation
lacks generalisability
Romanian orphanages had terrible conditions and poor standards of care with low levels of intellectual stimulation.
Romanian orphans were cared for in an unusual setting that differed greatly from more ‘typical’ orphanages.
Unusual situational variables lack generalisability and results cannot be applied to orphans in alternative environments
institutionalisation evaluation
validity issues
Significant validity issues
In the ERA study, children were not randomly assigned into groups
They were allocated determined by at which age they were adopted (before 6 months, between 6 months and 2 years, and after 2 years)
May have been some bias on who was adopted – those adopted first may have been more social and showed less disinhibited attachment. Results examining how attachment developed is not representative and valid.
However, in Bucharest Early Intervention study, Romanian orphans were randomly allocated to institutional care or fostering. Researchers directly manipulated who were adopted.
Reduces the impact of confounding variables, as more sociable children were more likely to be selected.
Increases validity
Actions of researchers influencing child staying in an institution makes them more likely to suffer negative effects e.g. lagging in intellectual development and attachment difficulties.
Ethical issues:
Research outcomes prioritised over children’s wellbeing.
Lasting effects for those adopted later in life
Long term psychological harm
institutionalisation evaluation
long term effects
Long term effects of institutionalisation are not yet clear
Studies such as Rutter have followed up orphans into their mid-teens and found some evidence of lasting effects of early experience, particularly those adopted late.
It is too soon to say with certainty whether children will experience long term effects.
May result in behaviour and attachment difficulties to children when the orphans become parents themselves.
However, Sigal et al investigated middle-aged adults who had been placed in an institution at birth or early childhood. They were more likely to never have married than a randomly selected group of adults (45% vs 17%), reported fewer social contacts, more psychological distress, including depression and higher rates of physical illness, including migraines and stomach ulcers.
Suggests that there are long-term effects on social behaviours, general wellbeing and mental and physiological illnesses.
Influence of attachment on childhood relationships
Includes affiliations with other people in childhood, including friends, classmates and adults such as teachers.
quality of peer relationships
- According to attachment theory, children with secure attachment types should be more confident in interactions with friends.
- Youngblade and Belsky found that 3-5 year old securely attached children were more curious, empathetic, resilient and self-confident, got along better with other children and were more likely to form close relationships.
- Hartup argues that children with a secure attachment type are more popular at nursery and engage more in social interactions with other children.
Insecurely attached children tend to be more reliant on teachers for interaction and emotional support. - Attachment type can be associated with quality of peer relationships in childhood.
bullying
- Myron-Wilson and Smith studied 196 children from London aged 7-11. They assessed attachment type and bullying using a questionnaire.
importance of Bowlby’s internal working model
- Continuity hypothesis suggests that there is consistency between early emotional experiences and later relationships, and children’s attachment types are reflected in later relationships.
- If a child has a secure attachment to a sensitive caregiver and a positive IWM, they are likely to see themselves as worthy of being loved. This provides the child with an adequate template for later attachments, so form secure relationships.
- If a child has an insecure attachment with a caregiver, they have an inadequate IWM and are likely to form future insecure relationships.
romantic relationships
- Continuity between early attachment styles and quality of later adult romantic relationships. This is based upon the idea of the IWM where infant’s primary attachment forms a model for future relationships.
- Influences person’s expectation of later relationships, affecting attitudes towards them.
romantic relationships
secure
Able to create meaningful, empathetic, and healthy attachments in the future.
Have happy, trusting and long-lasting relationships.
Openness regarding expressing emotions.
Comfortable depending on others and having others depend on them.
romantic relationships
insecure avoidant
Struggle to connect with others who attempt to connect or form a bond.
Distant and unlikely to open up, keep partner at arm’s length.
May enjoy company of others but actively work to avoid closeness due to feeling that they don’t or shouldn’t need others.
Less inclined to share feelings, affection not reciprocated.
Lack of commitment in relationships.
romantic relationships
insecure resistant
Crave intimacy but anxious whether partner will meet emotional needs.
Feel anxious about independence and crave security (needy and clingy).
Extreme sexual attraction to partner but highly jealous and requires constant reassurance.
Potentially controlling – lack of consistency from parent in infancy so can’t trust love provided and feel threatened.
Hazan and Shaver’s love quiz
- Questionnaire used to collect information from a volunteer sample of 620 people aged 14-82 in the USA. Was advertised as a ‘Love Quiz’ in the local newspaper.
- Looked at each person’s infant attachment type, assessed using a checklist.
- Looked at each person’s attitude towards loving relationships, assessed using multiple-choice questions.
- Readers asked to send off their completed ‘Love Quiz’. 1200 replies received and 620 were analysed.
- They found that those who were securely attached as infants tended to have long-lasting relationships, where they found others as trustworthy and had confidence in themselves as likeable.
- Insecurely attached people found adult relationships more difficult, tended to divorce, and suffered from jealously and fear of intimacy.
parenting style
- Research indicates an intergenerational continuity between adults’ attachment types and their children’s.
Children adopted the parenting styles of their own parents.
People tend to base their parenting style on internal working model so attachment type tends to be passed on through generations of a family. - Primary attachment in childhood acts as a blueprint for later relationships and affects success as a parent.
influence of early attachment
evaluation
practical applications
Useful practical applications e.g. in prevention or reduction of bullying
Insecure resistant (type C) children most likely to be bullies.
Insecure avoidant (type A) children most likely to be bullied.
Could focus on importance of parental relationships from early age to encourage secure attachments to prevent bullying.
Identify those at risk to discourage bullying e.g. identify insecure avoidant and support them in making friends to make them less vulnerable.
influence of early attachment
evaluation
practical applications
Useful practical applications e.g. supporting young adults with later attachments.
Insecure attachments are more likely to struggle with adult relationships due to a poor IWM.
This would allow for support to be put in place for individuals who did not form secure attachments in childhood in terms of showing them what healthy, trusting relationships should look like.
influence of early attachment
evaluation
self-report data
*Most research evidence comes from self-report data.
* Techniques have been used to retrospectively assess the quality of childhood relationships and assess the quality of adult relationships.
–> Social desirability may affect how honest people may be regarding something sensitive like childhood relationships or romantic relationships.
–> Childhood memories may not be easy to recall
–> Validity is low
*Furthermore, participants are being asked to report on relationships using their conscious understanding of them
–> Data may be invalid as they may not have conscious awareness
influence of early attachment
evaluation
cause and effect
Difficult to establish cause and effect relationships between early attachment types and the quality of later attachments.
Could be other important contributing factors that impact attitude towards loving relationships, such as childhood trauma, previous break-ups and mental health issues.
Research may only indicate a relationship between the two rather than causality.
influence of early attachment
evaluation
determinism
Explanation can be considered deterministic.
Suggests that there is no free will or conscious control over behaviour by suggesting that early relationships determine later ones.
This is problematic as it suggests that individuals have no control over poor relationship, which is not empowering and excuses bad behaviour like lack of commitment.
influence of early attachment
evaluation
hypothetical
The IWM is a hypothetical concept
Cannot measure, clearly define or observe it or its effects
Limits the credibility of the explanation as it is not empirical and is therefore unscientific.
Bullying
insecure-avoidant
They found that insecure-avoidant children were more likely to be victims of bullying
More likely to have difficulty fitting in with peers and spend more time alone, and so are more inclined to have experienced bullying.
Aren’t bothered about forming relationships so they may have no friends and become vulnerable to be picked on
Bullying
insecure-resistant
Insecure-resistant were more likely to be bullies
Insecure and jealous due to trust issues from inconsistent attachment with parents
Tend to be controlling and exert power over others
* Research demonstrated that children with parental insecure attachments were more likely to be involved in bullying than children with secure attachments.
bullying
secure
Securely attached children are not involved – more likely to form healthy relationships, rational and don’t feel the need to hurt others.
Developed positive template for relationships (internal working model)
importance of IWM on adult relationships
continuity hypothesis
child w/ secure attachment to sensitive caregiver, positive IWM –> adequate template for future relationships, feel loved
child w/ insecure attachment –> inadequate IWM, likely form future insecure relationships
continuity hypothesis
consistency between early emotional experiences and later relationships
children’s attachment types are reflected in later relationships
romantic relationships
secure
create meaningful, empathetic and healthy attachments
happy, trusting, long-lasting
openness regarding emotions
comfortable depending on others and others on them
romantic relationships
insecure avoidant
struggle to connect
distant and do not open up
avoid closeness - feel shouldn’t need others
affection not reciprocated
lack of commitment
romantic relationships
insecure resistant
crave intimacy but anxious whether partner will meet emotional needs
crave security (needy and clingy)
sexual attraction but jealous and require assurance
potentially controlling - lack of consistency, can’t trust love
Love Quiz
Hazan and Shaver
looked at each person’s attitude to loving relationships using multiple choice questions
1200 replies received, 620 analysed
those securely attached as infants had long-lasting relationships, found others as trustworthy and had confidence in themselves as likeable
insecurely attached people found adult relationships more difficult, tended to divorce and suffered from jealousy and fear of intimacy
parenting style
intergenerational continuity between adults’ and children’s attachment style
- children adopted style of their parents
- base parenting style on IWM so passed through family
primary attachment acts as a blueprint for later relationships and affect success as parent
influence on later relationships
strengths
practical applications (bullying)
prevention or reduction of bullying
- insecure resistant (C) most likely to be bullies
- insecure avoidant (A) most likely to be bullied
focus on importance of parental relationships from an early age to encourage secure attachments to prevent bullying
identify those at risk e.g. identify insecure avoidant and support them in making friends to make them less vulnerable
influence on later relationships
strengths
practical applications (relationships)
supporting young adults with later attachments
- insecure more likely to struggle due to poor IWM
support put in place for those without childhood secure attachments and show them what healthy and trusting relationships look like
influence on later relationships
weaknesses
self-report data
most research evidence from self-report data
- retrospectively assess quality of childhood relationships and assess quality of adult relationships
- social desirability affect honesty (sensitive topic)
- childhood memories not easy to recall
–> may lack conscious awareness
low validity
influence on later relationships
weaknesses
no cause and effect
difficult to establish causality between early and later relationships
- other contributing factors that impact attitudes towards loving relationships e.g. childhood trauma, previous break-ups and mental health issues
only relationship established
influence on later relationships
weaknesses
deterministic
suggests no free will or conscious control over behaviour as suggesting that early relationships determine later ones
no control over poor relationships, not empowering, excuses bad behaviour like lack of commitment
influence on later relationships
weaknesses
IWM is hypothetical
cannot measure, clearly define or observe
limits credibility of explanation - not empirical, so unscientific
animal studies of attachment
- Used to look at formation of early bonds between non-human parents and their offspring.
- Would be unethical to interfere with human attachment for research purposes
Could disrupt bond between primary caregiver and child and future relationships. - Attachment behaviour is common to a range of species, and we can extrapolate findings from animal research to humans.
- More practical to use animals in research and data produced is less affected by social desirability.
Most recent common ancestors e.g. chimps would display most similar behaviour, and so are likely to most closely resemble human attachments.
Animal studies of attachment can provide insight into the biological and evolutionary basis of attachment, and how it may have developed in humans. However, it is important to remember that animal studies cannot fully capture the complexity of human attachment, as humans have unique cognitive, social, emotional, and cultural factors that shape their attachment behaviour.
number of offspring
- Humans tend to only have one child at a time, so more attention spent on each child, so deeper relationships tend to form.
- Most parents raise children together, whereas many animals form a bond purely for procreation and the mother raises the children alone.
Not applicable to humans as babies will form attachments to multiple people
Live in communities with lots of attachments formed to father, grandparents, friends etc.
predators and survival
- Less need for protection from mother in humans as not at threat from predators
Allows human children to be more independent and are more self-sufficient as do not depend on closeness for survival
Lorenz
- Studied concept of imprinting – innate readiness to develop a strong bond with the mother, which takes place during a specific time in development (first few hours after birth)
- There is a critical period – if attachment not formed during this time, it will not happen. Effects are irreversible and long-lasting.
- Likely to occur to aid survival of offspring due to risks of predators.
Lorenz aims
- To investigate the mechanism of innate imprinting on newly hatched goslings.
Lorenz procedure
- Randomly divided a clutch of goose eggs.
- Half were hatched in an incubator and the first thing they saw was Lorenz.
- The other half were hatched in a natural environment and the first thing they saw was the mother goose.
- Lorenz observed the groups to investigate who they followed and behaviour recorded.
- Varied the time between birth and seeing a moving object so he could measure the critical period for imprinting.
Lorenz findings
- Released all goslings from an upturned box and each gosling went straight to its mother figure.
- The naturally hatched goslings went straight to the mother goose.
- The incubator group showed no recognition of the mother goose. They had formed an imprint of the object they were to follow.
- Later investigations found that imprinting in many species of birds occurred between 12 and 17 hours after hatching, leading to the notion that there are critical periods in development of behaviour.
- Hess showed that although imprinting process could occur as early as one hour after hatching, the strongest response occurred between 12 and 17 hours, and after 32 hours, the response was unlikely to occur at all.
Lorenz conclusions
- Process of imprinting was a natural instinct and would cause goslings to imprint on the first large moving object they saw.
- Suggests that organisms have a biological predisposition to form attachments to one single subject.
Suggests that attachment is innate
Lorenz strengths
practical applications
Suggests attachment formation is under biological control and happens withing a critical period.
Helped to form basis of Bowlby’s evolutionary theory of attachment which is highly influential for parents.
Findings suggest that a newborn and primary caregiver should remain in close proximity during critical period, which may influence hospital policies in birthing units ensures that mother and child stay together after birth to ensure a bond is formed.
Allows parents to form a closer bond earlier in child’s life, likely to help stable and close attachment to form later, which is found to decrease mental health issues in childhood.
Lorenz weaknesses
generalisability issues
Huge physiological and psychological differences between human infants and geese.
Imprinting is adaptive and aids survival in geese more than humans as humans are at less risk from predators attachment has different purpose.
Mammalian mothers show more emotional attachment to their young than birds do usefulness of research limited.
The way that geese form attachments with primary caregivers is unlikely to reflect that of human infants and caregivers. There may be a greater need for geese to imprint compared to human infants.
* Also is nearly impossible to establish if imprinting has occurred in human infants from a very early age.
* Humans develop much slower than other animals and interactions are limited for a long time.
* Hard to tell when an attachment has been formed.
Lorenz weaknesses
contradictory research
Guiton
Found that chickens who imprinted on yellow washing up gloves would try to mate with them as adults (as Lorenz would have predicted). However, with experience, they eventually learned to mate with other chickens.
Supports notion of animals showing courtship behaviour towards what they imprinted on. But imprinting is shown to be not as permanent as Lorenz predicted (critical period not as influential – behaviour changed through experience)
Harlow
- Learning theory of attachment is behaviourist explanation that suggests that attachments form through classical and operant conditioning.
Infant attaches to caregiver who provides food - Harlow’s work into attachment strongly refutes the learning theory of attachment
AIMS
Harlow aims
- To investigate the mechanisms by which newborn rhesus monkeys bond with their mothers.
Harlow procedure
- Separated newborn rhesus monkey infants from their mothers in a controlled environment.
- Raised in cages alone with two types of ‘surrogate mother’:
Wire monkey with baby bottle attached
Covered in soft terrycloth and did not have a baby bottle attached - Recorded how long each infant spent with the ‘wire mother’ and ‘cloth mother’.
- When the monkeys were frightened they preferred to seek comfort with the cloth mother. Tested this by placing a mechanical toy that made a loud noise into the cage and observing where the monkey sought comfort.
- Also followed the monkeys who had been deprived of a real mother to see if maternal deprivation had a permanent effect.
Recorded long-term effects such as sociability of monkeys and their relationship with offspring.
Harlow findings
- Monkeys spent significantly longer with the cloth mother although it provided no nutrition.
- Monkeys who were reared in a social environment developed into healthy adults, while the monkeys in isolation with the surrogate mothers displayed dysfunctional adult behaviour:
Being timid
Unpredictable with other monkeys
Difficulty mating
Females were inadequate mothers – some neglected their young - Behaviour observed in monkeys left with surrogate mothers for more than 90 days.
- For those left for less the effects could be reversed if placed in a normal environment where they could form attachments.
Harlow conclusions
- Time spent with cloth mother shows how comfort is more important than food in forming attachments.
- Monkeys have an innate, unlearned need for comfort, suggesting that attachment concerns emotional security more than food.
- Critical period of 90 days – mother figure had to be introduced to the monkey within this period for an attachment to form, or after this the damage done by early deprivation was irreversible.
Harlow strengths
practical applications
Practical applications for society about long-term development and importance of a critical period.
Research demonstrates importance of emotional care and long-term consequences of early neglect in monkeys who were deprived of a mother figure for over 90 days.
Used to highlight importance of emotional care in hospitals and institutions.
E.g. skin to skin contact for newborn babies to mothers.
May encourage parents to form closer and more stable bonds in childhood early in life, allowing these relationships to continue into adulthood.
Ensures that mother and child can remain in close proximity after birth.
Harlow strengths
internal validity
Research carried out in lab conditions with high levels of control over extraneous variables.
Lab-reared monkeys taken from mothers a few hours after birth, preventing them from forming attachments to their mothers, which would influence behaviour and invalidate results.
Harlow was therefore able to ensure that factors affecting formation of attachment were controlled for.
This allows for replication and valid conclusions to be drawn.
However, Harlow wasn’t necessarily measuring real-life attachment formation.
Behaviour in a lab is not natural as environment is not natural.
Conclusions drawn will not be generalisable to natural settings and not representative of behaviour in the real world.
Harlow weaknesses
lacks generalisability
Conducted research using rhesus monkeys.
Bonds between monkeys may fail to reflect the emotional connections and interactions that characterise human attachments.
Attachment in monkeys is unlikely to reflect nature of bond between human infants and caregivers.
However, rhesus monkeys and humans are though to share above 90% of their DNA, so using monkeys as participants allows for some degree of continuity, suggesting that generalisations can be made.
Harlow’s study of a mammalian species may therefore be more useful in explaining human attachment than Lorenz’s work with geese.
Harlow weaknesses
ethical considerations
Ethical considerations due to the monkeys suffering long-term negative effects.
Experienced separation from mothers and endured emotional harm and adverse effects continued into adulthood.
Could be argued that this is unethical – were not protected from harm and suffered, with irreversible effects. This resulted in them not functioning adequately and had a low standard of life (acted timidly, had difficulties mating).
However, if animals are exposed to suffering in research, they should ensure that the cost to the animals must be justified by the scientific benefit of the work.
Useful knowledge gained to encourage healthy attachments between children and parents.
More ethical than research into humans.
learning theory of attachment
classical and operant conditioning
role of classical conditioning
UCS (food) –> UCR (happiness)
UCS (food) + NS (parent) –> UCR (happiness)
CS (parent) –> CR (happiness)
gains pleasure from being fed, associate parent with the food
after attachment formed, infant gains pleasure when primary caregiver present
role of operant conditioning
positive and negative reinforcement
reinforces repetition of behaviour
increases time and proximity spent together
positive reinforcement
baby cries and caregiver soothes
provides attention
negative reinforcement
caregiver soothes baby and crying stops
removes unpleasant sound
other behaviours encouraging attachment
babbling
funny noises and expressions
nappy changing
learning theory of attachment strengths
scientific
founded in scientific theory
- principles of classical and operant conditioning based on empirical evidence carried out in highly controlled environments
- well-established theories that are scientifically testable and add credibility
learning theory of attachment strengths
valid
role conditioning plays in attachment has validity
- theory proposes that UCS and primary reinforcer is the baby crying so caregiver soothes the baby and behaviour is reinforced
- baby encouraged to cry to earn attention, parent encouraged to soothe to prevent crying, attachment formed through time spent together
- comfort associated with caregiver
learning theory of attachment weaknesses
contradicting evidence (Schaffer and Emerson)
refuted by Schaffer and Emerson
- found that caregiver giving most attention and responsiveness was who child was most attached to (sensitive responsiveness)
- refutes theory which suggests that we form attachments to the person who feeds us
learning theory of attachment weaknesses
contradicting evidence (Harlow)
demonstrated that comfort is more important than food
- monkeys spent more time with mother that provided comfort than food
comfort more important in forming attachments
learning theory of attachment weaknesses
contradicting evidence (not acquired behaviour)
Bowlby proposed that attachment is innate/biological and holds survival value
refutes idea of environmental cause
Bowlby’s monotropic theory
evolutionary basis
attachment is innate, gives a survival advantage
two-way process between carer and infant (protection)
adaptive –> danger and responses change over time (wild animals, traffic)
Bowlby’s monotropic theory
elements
social releasers
monotropy
adaptive
got to stay close
internal working model
critical period
social releasers
born with tendency to display innate behaviours which ensure proximity and contact with attachment figure
e.g. crying, smiling that stimulate caregiving
species-specific
monotropy
emphasis on attachment to one particular caregiver
qualitatively different and more important
more constant and predictive care from attachment figure, better quality attachment
effects of every separation from mother add up - safest dose is ‘zero dose’ (laws of continuity and accumulated separation)
adaptive
attachment has evolved because need for survival has evolved
no longer at risk of predation
got to stay close
staying close to caregiver helps young infants and aids survival through protection
internal working model
form mental representation of relationship with primary caregiver
- serves as model/blueprint for future relationships
- idea of what relationships should be like based on interactions with primary caregiver
loving and reliable –> same
poor –> poor
critical period
2 years for attachment to form
- behaviours must occur within this time for attachment to be formed
if contact disrupted or broken during this time child will suffer irreversible long-term consequences of maternal deprivation
sensitive period of 5 years
Bowlby’s monotropic theory
strengths
research support (Lorenz)
found goslings imprinted on first living object they saw to ensure survival
needed to happen by 17 hours or wouldn’t happen
- suggests forming attachment is innate, importance of monotropy and critical period
Bowlby’s monotropic theory
strengths
research support (Harlow)
monkeys who did not have secure attachment with mother figure could not form relationships with offspring
- those in isolated environments became inadequate mothers
- supports IWM –> when no attachment, cannot form others
- idea of critical period –> no attachment formed
HOWEVER, lacks generalisability due to animal research
- humans are more complex, emotional, less predations
Bowlby’s monotropic theory
strengths
research support (Hazan and Shaver)
Love Quiz in newspaper
correlation between early attachment types and later romantic relationships
securely attached had more successful adult relationships
supports IWM
Bowlby’s monotropic theory
strengths
practical applications (maternity leave)
Bowlby’s WHO report suggested babies needed constant care from mother for healthy psychological development
maternity leave - allowing women to spend time with children and form attachment and return to work without fear of losing job
financial support
Bowlby’s monotropic theory
strengths
practical applications (childcare)
Bowlby’s theory highlights importance of positive attachment experiences and maintaining monotropic bond in first 5 years
instrumental in development of good childcare practices
greater stability developed through day care practices assigning caregivers to children
policies regarding hospital visiting hours reviewed - parent and child allowed to stay together in special care units and visitation nights
Bowlby’s monotropic theory
weaknesses
reason to refute
Schaffer and Emerson
- found that by 40 weeks, children form multiple attachments with other caregivers
- challenges monotropy (one relationship more important)
relationships with father and grandparents may be just as important
Bowlby’s monotropic theory
weaknesses
socially sensitive
suggests that secure attachment type dependent on mother’s continued presence
damaged for women who go back to work - guilty, responsible for impacting future relationships
places unfair burden on mothers - pushed into lifestyle choices
Bowlby’s monotropic theory
weaknesses
alternative explanations
fails to consider role of environment on attachment
e.g. classical and operant conditioning
reductionist and invalid
strange situation aims
how infants 9-18 months behaviour under mild stress
stranger anxiety, separation anxiety, secure-base concept
quality of attachment to caregiver
strange situation procedure
controlled observation
2 way mirror so psychologists could observe
1. observer introduces mother and infant to room
2. infant explores, play stimulated
3. stranger enters
4. mother leaves
5. mother returns, then leaves again
6. infant alone
7. stranger enters
8. mother returns
time sampling, 15-30 seconds, scored on intensity
video taped
strange situation attachment behaviours
proximity seeking
exploration and secure base behaviour
stranger anxiety
separation anxiety
response to reunion
proximity seeking
good attachment infant will stay close to caregiver
exploration and secure base behaviour
child feels confident to explore
uses caregiver as secure bases
stranger anxiety
sign of good attachment
separation anxiety
protest at separation from caregiver
response to reunion
easily comforted, happiness
insecure avoidant, type A
do not orientate to attachment figure when exploring
physically and emotionally independent
do not seek contact when distressed
mother and stranger easy to comfort
no distress when mother leaves and little interest when reunited
unconcerned by stranger
15%
secure, type B
confident that attachment figure available to meet needs
use attachment figure as safe base to explore, seeks mother when distressed
easily soothed by mother and joy on reunion
distressed when mother leaves and stranger
70%
insecure resistant, type C
ambivalent behaviour (clingy, dependent, reject attachment and cannot be comforted)
do not move away to explore independently
intense distress when mother leaves and stranger present
resists comfort
15%
type A avoidant conclusions
likely to have insensitive caregiver, rejecting of needs
may withdraw from helping with difficult tasks and unavailable during emotional distress
type B secure conclusions
caregiver sensitive and respond appropriately to signals
Bowlby: available, responsive and helpful IWM
type C resistant
behaviour results from inconsistent level of response to needs
sensitive responsiveness (for secure attachments)
determines quality of attachment
sensitive mothers correctly interpret signals and respond appropriately
strange situation strengths
high reliability
artificial, controlled environment w/ standardised procedure
8 episodes, 3 mins each
easy to replicate, check for consistency
carried out in different cultures
strange situation weaknesses
culture-bound
developed by Ainsworth in America using American sample
may lack generalisability and population validity
cannot assess attachment in different cultures
- German infants had higher proportion of type A compared to USA
- suggests that German mothers are less sensitively responsive, but independence is valued more
imposed etic - imposing own cultural values onto other cultures
ideal attachment type based on Western values
strange situation weaknesses
low ecological validity
artificial environment, unfamiliar to child
does not represent response in natural environment
may differ in a safe, familiar setting
lacks generalisability to everyday life
strange situation weaknesses
poor ethical considerations
unfamiliar experience for child, causes upset
deliberately causes distress - cause psych harm
However, would encounter strangers and will part from parents so does not pose greater risk than everyday life
strange situation weaknesses
validity issues with classification system
some infants do not fit into categories
4th attachment type - disorganised - characterised by lack of consistent patterns of social behaviour
suggests original classification incomplete
strange situation weaknesses
evidence to refute role of parenting style on attachment type
Kagan proposed temperament hypothesis
infants differ in interactions based on biological predisposed personality styles
Ainsworth suggests attachment depends on sensitive responsiveness of parent, suggests inherited
van Ijzeendoorn and Kroonenberg
aims
investigate cross-cultural differences in attachment type
meta-analysis
differences in proportions
van Ijzeendoorn and Kroonenberg
procedure
meta-analysis
32 samples from 8 countries
average % of attachment type
1990 infants, collectivist and individualistic cultures
only mother-infant pairs
van Ijzeendoorn and Kroonenberg
findings
secure attachment most common across all cultures
highest in UK 75%, lowest in China 50%
insecure resistant least common - 25% in Japan, 2% in UK
insecure avoidant most common in Germany and least in Japan
variation within cultures 150% more than between cultures
van Ijzeendoorn and Kroonenberg
conclusions
secure is norm –> behaviour innate and universal, optimal form of attachment
cultural practices in child rearing have influence on attachment type
Takahashi
60 middle class Japanese infants
same standardised procedure and behavioural categories
Takahashi
findings
0% insecure avoidant
32% insecure resistant
65% secure
90% of infant alone steps had to be stopped due to excessive anxiety
broke cultural norms
Takahashi
conclusions
method did not work as babies too distressed - not used to being alone, could not be consoled
does not mean mothers were insensitive –> cultural norm in Japanese, children not left alone until 2 years old
indicates cross-cultural variations
Grossman and Grossman
German infants tended to be insecure avoidant
value independence more, distance between parents and children
indicates cross-cultural variations
Simoneli
76 12-moth old Italian children
56% secure attachment (lower)
36% insecure avoidant (higher)
due to more mothers working long hours and using childcare
cultural and societal changes can impact attachment
cultural variations strengths
high reliability
allowed for replication
artificial conditions, high control, standardised procedure
cultural variations weaknesses
ethnocentrism
procedure not appropriate for other cultures
developed based on American ideals
independence valued (type A) in Germany, less sensitive responsiveness
unusual for Japanese infants to be separated from parents, easily distressed
high proportion of insecure children
cultural variations weaknesses
ethical issues
designed to be distressing, cause psych harm
Japan - greater risk than everyday, not separated
cultural variations strengths
high population validity
large sample size 1990, 32 studies, 8 countries
reduces impact of anomalies
less likely affected by unusual ppts
greater generalisability
BUT, fails to represent culture as a whole
1 in China, 18 in USA, disproportionate
data less representative, not accurate reflection of attachment in some cultures
misleading
maternal deprivation
monotropy means that failure to initiate or breakdown of maternal attachment leads to negative consequences - affectionless psychopathy
relationship in first 5 years is crucial - if separation occurs during critical period and no adequate substitute care, child will suffer deprivation
leads to intellectual, social and emotional development consequences
separation
child not in presence of caregiver
if brief and have substitute caregiver, no significant impact on development
extended separation can lead to deprivation
deprivation
attachment disrupted or broken - lose element of care
critical period
prolonged separation in first 2.5 years detrimental if no substitute
will lead to psych damage
risk continues until age of 5 (sensitive period)
effects of maternal deprivation
permanent, irreversible, include intellectual, emotional and social problems
delinquency
reduced intelligence
increased aggression
depression
affectionless psychopathy
affectionless psychopathy
lack of concern for others, lack of guilt, inability to form meaningful relationships
impulsive, little regard for consequences
continuity hypothesis
consequences on future relationships
follow pattern based on template formed by internal working model
Bowlby’s 44 thieves
link between affectionless psychopathy and maternal deprivation
44 thief teenagers
interviews for signs of AP, family interviewed to establish if prolonged early separation from mothers
control group of non-criminal but emotionally disturbed young people
14/44 thieves were affectionless psychopaths
12/44 experienced prolonged separation in first 2 years
other 5/30 experienced separation
2/44 of control experienced separation
concluded that early separation/deprivation caused AP
maternal deprivation strengths
research support
Bowlby
12/14 affectionless psychopaths experienced prolonged separation from mothers during first 2.5 years
deprivation has effect on AP
BUT, research lacks validity
self-report techniques
researcher bias, confirmation bias, want to support hypothesis in interpretation of data
maternal deprivation strengths
practical applications
effect on post-war thinking about childcare
orphanages and children’s home now avoid having many caregivers for each child, a few key workers play a central role
allows substitute attachment to avoid maternal deprivation
maternal deprivation strengths
further practical applications
Bowlby helped revolutionise hospital policy for visitation
hospitals allowed parents to visit sick children
focuses on wellbeing of child
allows attachment to form
maternal deprivation weaknesses
opposing evidence
Lewis replicated 44 thieves w/ 500 young people
history of prolonged separation did not predict criminality or difficulty in forming close relationships
other factors may affect outcome of maternal deprivation
contradicts idea that mother fully responsible for characteristics of child
maternal deprivation weaknesses
failed to distinguish between deprivation and privation
deprivation when attachment broken or disrupted
privation when no attachment in first place
failed to acknowledge the difference between the two
argued that separation, deprivation and privation have different long term effects
maternal deprivation weaknesses
socially sensitive
negative impact on mothers
blame for low IQ and emotional problems if attachment disrupted
makes working mothers guilty for leaving child, make them feel inadequate
