AGGRESSION

Question 1

aggression definition

Answer 1

When an individual is angry and becomes destructive with the intent to harm or hurt themselves or others.

Question 2

social explanations of aggression

Answer 2

frustration-aggression
SLT
deindividuation

Question 3

frustration-aggression

Answer 3

frustration always results in aggression
aggression always caused by frustration
caused by barriers preventing us from reaching a goal

Question 4

barriers

Answer 4

physical or imagined
prevent us from achieving something
causes frustration

Question 5

needs to be released cathartically

Answer 5

releasing repressed emotions in an outward way, providing relief
Freud :(

Question 6

not always directed at source of frustration

Answer 6

can be displaced / deflected on alternative / weaker object / person

Question 7

factors affecting likelihood of aggression

Answer 7

proximity to goal
if believe aggression will remove barrier
negative feeling frustration causes

Question 8

proximity to goal

Answer 8

if perceived close to goal, aggression is more likely

Question 9

if believe aggression will remove barrier

Answer 9

if believe aggression will result in a more favourable outcome, aggression is more likely

Question 10

negative feeling frustration occurs

Answer 10

Berkowitz revised model - barriers not only cause of frustration
negative feeling frustration caused
if obstacle justified, less aggression

Question 11

frustration aggression strengths
research support

Answer 11

from Haris
experiment where pushed in front of people in queues in shopping centre
participants near front to line more aggression than those at back
supports proximity - close you are to achieving goal, more aggressive

Question 12

frustration aggression weaknesses
not cathartic

Answer 12

venting anger makes people angrier and more aggressive
Bushman frustrated ppts, allowed them to vent their anger on a punching bag, focus on getting fit or do nothing
those who vented were more aggressive
not acting on anger is most effective in decreasing anger
suggests that releasing anger can make it worse - not cathartic

Question 13

frustration aggression weaknesses
does not account for all aggression

Answer 13

only accounts for reactive aggression, not premeditated aggression
explanation limited

Question 14

frustration aggression weaknesses
deterministic

Answer 14

aggression due to barriers, fails to recognise cognitive and moral factors mediating aggression
do not explain individual differences, used to excuse aggression

Question 15

frustration aggression weaknesses
does not explain gender differences

Answer 15

80% of violent crime committed by men
men more aggressive due to more testosterone, significant gender difference
suggests a bio explanation

Question 16

social learning theory

Answer 16

learn aggression through observation and imitation of aggressive role models

Question 17

mediational processes

Answer 17

cognitive factors, intervene to determine whether a new behaviour is acquired or not
conscious
attention, retention, reproduction, motivation

Question 18

attention

Answer 18

interest in behaviour of role model
carefully watch actions performed

Question 19

retention

Answer 19

mental representations of behaviour viewed, stored in behaviour

Question 20

reproduction

Answer 20

whether we believe we can reproduce behaviour
self-efficacy - belief in physical capacity to execute behaviours

Question 21

motivation

Answer 21

will to perform behaviour
rewards and punishment considered
direct or indirect / vicarious reinforcement

Question 22

SLT strengths
research support

Answer 22

from Bandura
children who observed aggressive role models were more likely to repeat than control group
learn from observation and imitation

Question 23

SLT strengths
practical applications

Answer 23

aggression comes from observing others, specifically role models acting aggressively
reduced by limiting time with aggressive role models, or presented with non-aggressive role models
age ratings, 9pm Watershed implemented to reduce aggression by preventing exposure

Question 24

SLT weaknesses
research to refute

Answer 24

Brengden - twins
+0.79 for MZ twins on physical aggression, higher than DZ
genetic and biological influence over levels of aggression
refutes that learnt, suggests innate

Question 25

SLT weaknesses
lacks scientific credibility

Answer 25

have to infer mediational processes, cannot empirically measure
not scientific

Question 26

SLT weaknesses
not due to one causal factor

Answer 26

product of predisposing personal factors and precipitating social factors
social cognitions, schemas is combination, interact
social cognitions acquired through observation
many factors, reductionist

Question 27

deindividuation

Answer 27

lose sense of identity and personal responsibility when immersed in norms of a group
inner restraints of self-awareness decreased, more inclined to engage in aggression

Question 28

factors influencing deindividuation

Answer 28

anonymity
social identity rather than private identity
diffusion of responsibility

Question 29

anonymity

Answer 29

less identifiable in a group, less accountable, less inhibited
e.g. wearing masks at riots

Question 30

social identity rather than private identity

Answer 30

individual identity weakened
adopt values of the group, lose personal identity
attention shifted to standards and values of the group, less likely to self-regulate, follow group norms

Question 31

diffusion of responsibility

Answer 31

reduction in personal responsibility - seen as shared by group
larger the group, more deindividuated, more aggressive

Question 32

deindividuation strengths
research support (Zimbardo)

Answer 32

guards conformed to social role, acted aggressively towards prisoners
felts less personally responsible due to loss of personal identity
uniform that made them less identifiable
demonstrates how encourages aggression

HOWEVER, not all guards behaved with same level of brutality
one was much more aggressive
does not account for individual differences, not all deindividuated to same extent

Question 33

deindividuation strengths
research support (Zimbardo, Milgram)

Answer 33

female ppts in a Milgram replication were deindividuated (hoods, uniform) or individuated (name tags, own clothes, introduced)
deindividuated group shocked twice as much
supports explanation about anonymity, loss of personal identity and accountability
adds credibility

HOWEVER, research study is artificial, cannot be generalised

Question 34

deindividuation strengths
practical applications

Answer 34

explains group aggression
masks banned at protests or CCTV introduced, people remain identifiable, more accountability and self-restraint
understanding can help reduce aggression

Question 35

deindividuation weaknesses
deterministic

Answer 35

aggression escalates due to loss of personal responsibility
absolves individuals of personal responsibility, suggests we do not have control over behaviour
cannot be held accountable
should feel empowered, will not try to control behaviour

Question 36

deindividuation weaknesses
doesn’t always lead to aggression

Answer 36

can lead to reduced aggression and increased prosocial behaviours
conform to group norms, if group acts positively, more likely to do so
e.g. religious festivals, highlights importance of acknowledging role of cultural cues and group norms
does not always lead to aggression

Question 37

institutional explanations

Answer 37

situational / dispositional
aggressive behaviours adopted by members of institutions

Question 38

situational explanation

Answer 38

aggression in prisons due to environmental factors

Question 39

deprivation model

Answer 39

characteristics of prison account for violence
imprisonment causes stress and frustration, leading to violence
behaviour response to adjustment issues by pains of imprisonment and environmental deprivations

Question 40

deprivations

Answer 40

liberty
autonomy
goods
heterosexual relationships
security

Question 41

deprivation of liberty

Answer 41

loss of freedom
have to obtain permission to eat, sleep, shower etc

Question 42

deprivation of autonomy

Answer 42

no power, few choices
feelings of helplessness
frustration, aggression

Question 43

deprivation of goods

Answer 43

restricted access causes resentment
particularly a problem with mobile phones - used previously, cannot make calls when they want
tension arises when not allowed to contact family

Question 44

deprivation of heterosexual relationships

Answer 44

no chance for sex or form relationships, no emotional intimacy with partner

Question 45

deprivation of security

Answer 45

live in fear of aggression from inmates, heightened physical threat
aggression as form of defence

Question 46

role of prison characteristics

Answer 46

overcrowding
heat and noise
job burnout

Question 47

overcrowding

Answer 47

murder, suicide and assault rates due to overcrowding
prison population density has significant effect on inmate violence violence rates (Yuma)

Question 48

heat and noise

Answer 48

prisons are hot and noisy
exacerbates effects of overcrowding, predisposes aggressive behaviour
high temp and high pop density produced more negative emotions in students (Griffitt)

Question 49

job burnout

Answer 49

prison staff psychologically worn out, loss of care about inmates
deterioration of relationships with inmates and overall functioning of prison, linked to violence

Question 50

situational factors strengths
research support

Answer 50

Hasbach
inmates who watched nature videos committed 26% fewer violent infractions
deprivation of liberty or goods, deprived access to natural world - outdoor space is walled yard, no greenery
highlights importance of situational factors

Question 51

situational factors weaknesses
research to refute deprivations

Answer 51

McCorkle
study of 371 US prisons, little evidence to support connection between violence and overcrowding/living conditions
way prisons were managed was a better predictor of serious violence
deprivations not a significant causal factor, importance of situational factors

371 prisons - greater validity

Question 52

situational factors strengths
practical applications

Answer 52

reduce aggression by reducing heat, noise and overcrowding

HOWEVER, not easy to implement
expensive, not enough space, need more prisons

Question 53

situational factors strengths / weaknesses
prison riots

Answer 53

occur due to withdrawal of privileges or lack of explanation to why daily routine changed
supports role of situational factors - deprivation of goods / autonomy, feeling of helplessness, leads to frustration

HOWEVER, can flare with no reason
situational influence not always identified, disposition must play a role

Question 54

situational factors strengths
importance of range of factors

Answer 54

imported characteristics and prison environment impacts aggression
e.g. poor physical conditions, controlling regimes, unfair staff or rules unevenly applied
importance of holistic account of aggression

insufficient to explain as entirely situational

Question 55

situational factors weaknesses
gender differences

Answer 55

Harer and Langan compared violence in male and female institutions
2.61/100 female violence-related misconduct vs 4.56/100 for men
female violence rate only 11% of male serious violence rate
women are less aggressive
dispositional - men biologically prone to aggression due to more testosterone

HOWEVER, difficult to understand if men and women experience same levels of pain and deprivation
contained in separate institutions, so situational factors differ
women’s prisons have maternity wards

Question 56

dispositional explanations
importation model

Answer 56

aggression due to characteristics of prisoners
prisoner’s views and attitudes
previous experiences
genetics
testosterone
youth
levels of education

Question 57

prisoner’s views and attitudes

Answer 57

may cause violence if believe violence is an acceptable response to conflict

Question 58

previous experiences

Answer 58

may have taught to be more violent
e.g. belonging to gang, suffering abuse, created antisocial behaviour
normalises aggression as resolving conflict

Question 59

genetics

Answer 59

some more prone to aggression
MAOA-L or less activity in PFC, less control over impulsive behaviour

Question 60

testosterone

imported characteristics

Answer 60

correlations suggest that high testosterone in men is associated with increased aggression

Question 61

youth

Answer 61

younger inmates tend to find it harder to adjust to prison life
engage in more crime, see aggression as an appropriate response

Question 62

levels of education

Answer 62

negative correlation with aggression
aggression means education may have suffered
may be due to other factors e.g. poverty

Question 63

dispositional explanations strengths
research support

Answer 63

Kane and Janus found that violent offences were related to learned history of offender.
if had lower level of education, more serious criminal record and more time unemployed, more likely to be aggressive in prison
suggests that education affects aggression
adds credibility

Question 64

dispositional explanations strengths
idiographic

Answer 64

looks at each individual’s situation
experience and predisposition are individual
explains why some are violent

Question 65

dispositional explanations strengths
gender differences

Answer 65

Harer and Langan compared violence
2.61/100 female violence-related misconduct
4.56/100 male
female violence only 11% of male
women are less aggressive than men
due to testosterone

difficult to understand whether experience similar levels of pains, in different institutions, situational factors differ

Question 66

dispositional explanations weaknesses
research to refute

Answer 66

DeLisi
inmates involved in street gangs were no more likely to engage in prison violence

may be due to gang members being isolated, restricting opportunities for violence

Question 67

dispositional explanations weaknesses
difficult to implement

Answer 67

past experiences, age, genetics and views
unethical, difficult to reduce testosterone, cannot erase memories
cannot address issues

Question 68

dispositional explanations weaknesses
importance of a range of factors

Answer 68

report by McGuire
both imported characteristics and prison environment impact aggression
importance of holistic account
insufficient to explain as dispositional

Question 69

media influences of aggression

Answer 69

role of computer games
desensitisation
disinhibition
cognitive priming

Question 70

role of computer games

Answer 70

may receive positive reinforcement, reinforcing real life violence (operant conditioning)
affects moral judgement of players
- do not see anything wrong with using violence, increased violence irl
may be beneficial for relieving stress, outlet for anger and safely channel aggressive thoughts (catharsis)

Question 71

Carnagey procedure

Answer 71

lab and field
* Ppts reported media habits and played a violent or non-violent video game for 20 mins.
* Watched 10 min video containing scenes of real-life violence while heart rate and galvanic skin response (GSR) monitored.
* Ppts who played a violent video game had lower HR and GSR while viewing real violence, demonstrating a desensitisation to real violence.

Question 72

Carnagey conclusions

Answer 72

supports desensitisation
* Individuals who play violent video games habituate to violence and become less physiologically aroused, making them more likely to engage in aggressive behaviour.

Question 73

Carnagey evaluation

Answer 73

 High internal validity
 Lab based research such as Carnagey involves the isolation and direct manipulation of violent or non-violent video game to see its effect on physiological response to aggression.
 Allows us to establish cause and effect between violent media and aggressive behaviour, something that other research methods may struggle to do.

 Low ecological validity
 Lab based research measures physiological responses to filmed real aggression.
 Measure of aggressive responses in lab experiments are often unrepresentative of real-world behaviour, meaning that lab research may fail to reflect how aggression operates in a real world environment.
 Also will only measure short-term responses immediately after playing violent games and not measure long-term effects.

Question 74

Anderson and Bushman procedure

Answer 74

• Meta-analysis examining effect of violent media on aggressive behaviour in children and young adults in lab and field based settings.
• 35 research reports on effects of computer games with 4262 participants.
• Short-term effects of violence include increased physiological arousal and aggression-related thoughts and feelings.
• Supports hypothesis that exposure poses a risk to children and youths in terms of aggressive behaviour.

Question 75

Anderson and Bushman conclusions

Answer 75

refutes desensitisation
* Theory suggests that exposure decreases physiological arousal but meta-analysis found that short-term effects include increased physiological arousal.

Question 76

meta-analysis

Answer 76

• Quantitative research technique that pools data from multiple studies together investigating the effects of violent media to arrive at one combined answer.
• Data reviewed together and combined data can be tested statistically to assess effect size.

Question 77

Anderson and Bushman evaluation

Answer 77

 Highly valid
 Data drawn from multiple sources to give broader overview of effects of media on aggression.
 More data means we can get a more accurate and robust picture of influence of violent media on aggression.

 Publication bias can be a problem
 Generally only include published studies and only happens if have statistically significant findings.
 Do not get full picture of effects of media violence as some data excluded.

Question 78

De Lisi

Answer 78

correlation
* Studied 277 juvenile offenders with histories of serious aggressive behaviour using structured interviews.
* Found that aggressive behaviour was significantly correlated with how often they played violent computer games.
* Also assessed how much they liked to play violent video games and found a significant association with delinquency.

Question 79

De Lisi evaluation

Answer 79

 Highly valid
 Research involves no manipulation of IV in artificial environments using artificial tasks, and are simply assessed via self-report methods in terms of levels of aggression and engagement with violent video games.
 Tend to assess real world examples of aggression.
 Also more ethical as no forced exposure to violent behaviour.

 Only determine correlational links
 Does not establish cause and effect i.e. that violent video games cause aggressive behaviour.
 Could be other variables affecting likelihood of aggressive behaviour e.g. upbringing (abuse/neglect).
 Selection hypothesis suggests that aggressive people are more likely to select with and engage with aggressive media.

Question 80

Anderson

Answer 80

longitudinal
* Investigated long-term effects of violent video games on students aged 9-18.
* Video game habits and physically aggressive behaviour assessed twice 3-6 months apart.
* Results demonstrates that playing video games is a significant risk factor for later physically aggressive behaviour. Violent video game effect on youth generalises across very different cultures.
 America (high violence) and Japan (low violence)
* Suggests practical applications – reducing exposure of youth to violent media.

Question 81

Anderson evaluation

Answer 81

 Allows for real world effects of exposure to violent media to be studied in natural environments.
 Studies follow the same group of participants over long periods of time.
 Therefore allowing researchers to examine the impact in a more valid way.

 Might lack validity
 Longitudinal studies vulnerable to effects of confounding variables. Many other sources of aggression interact with media influences over a period of time e.g. upbringing.
 Therefore becomes difficult to separate variables and measure the extent to which each one can influence aggression.

Question 82

desensitisation

Answer 82

• Anxiety about aggression usually inhibits its use, but media violence may lead to aggressive behaviour by removing this anxiety.
   When we witness aggression or violence our sympathetic nervous system responds with the fight or flight response.
• The more media violence a person watches, the more acceptable or normal it becomes, as they have a reduced emotional response to it.
   Become less anxious about violence.
• Typically requires continual exposure.
   Habituation - leads to reduction in physiological response.
   Lack of fear response means that aggressive behaviour is viewed as less risky so is more likely to be engaged with.
• Change in cognitive and affective reactions.
   Desensitised individuals are less likely to notice violence in real life, feel less sympathy for victims and are more accepting of violence, all of which could increase aggression in real life.

Question 83

desensitisation strengths
research support

Answer 83

• Research support from Carnagey
   Participants who previous played a violent video game had lower heart rate and galvanic skin response while viewing filmed real violence, demonstrating a physiological desensitisation to violence.
   Supports the idea that emotional and physiological response is reduce after exposure to violence.
   However, Anderson and Bushman’s meta-analysis can be used to refute the explanation.
   Their analysis suggests that short term effects of violent games include increased physiological arousal and aggression-related thoughts and feelings.
   Short-term effects include increased physiological arousal, which refutes the explanation of desensitisation which suggests there is a decrease in physiological arousal.
   Therefore, inconsistent findings suggest the explanation is unsubstantiated and lacking in credibility and cannot put trust in theory.

Question 84

desensitisation strengths
practical applications

Answer 84

 The explanation provides useful strategies that could be implemented to reduce aggressive behaviour and highlights a need for regulation of violent media.
 Could reduce children’s screen time – reduce amount of time exposed and slow down desensitisation response / habituation.
 Games could come with parents could enforce recommended time limits on games (e.g. 1 hour a day).

Question 85

desensitisation weaknesses
refuted by catharsis

Answer 85

 The explanation can be refuted by psychoanalytic theory of catharsis.
 Suggests that engaging with violent media would decrease levels of aggression due to safe emotional release of aggressive feelings.
 Therefore provides an alternative view and suggests that violent media may prevent the actual expression of violence.

Question 86

desensitisation weaknesses
correlational

Answer 86

 Much research for this explanation is correlational in nature, which only establishes a relationship between exposure to media violence and aggression.
 Research evidence has demonstrated a negative correlation between exposure to violent media and physiological responses, we cannot say that violent media causes a reduction in physiological arousal or that reduction in arousal causes increase in aggression.
 Could be that naturally aggressive people seek out violent media, rather than violent media creating aggression in everyone.

Question 87

disinhibition

Answer 87

• Normal checks that inhibit aggressive actions are reduced.
  held in check by social norms
  anonymity and invisibility
  solipsistic introjections

Question 88

held in check by social norms

Answer 88

 Norms more aggressive in media
 May be rewarded for acts of aggression
 See more violent standards of behaviour as acceptable, especially if violence goes unpunished and guilt reduces.
 Normalises aggression and reduces inhibition.

Question 89

anonymity and invisibility

Answer 89

 Responsibility percieved to be reduced because identity is obscured.
 Aggressive behaviour more likely as accountability removed.

Question 90

solipsistic introjections

Answer 90

 Cognitively merged with character when alter ego selected.
 Gamer behaves as if they are the character.
 Leads to aggressive, uncharacteristic behaviour.

Question 91

disinhibition strengths
research support

Answer 91

 Research support from Eastin
 Investigated how avatars impact aggressive response.
 Females experienced more aggressive thoughts when playing a female character.
 Supports solipsistic introjections as player becomes cognitively merged with the game character, which has a stronger effect when there are similarities between character and player.

Question 92

disinhibition strengths
practical applications

Answer 92

 Useful strategies to reduce aggressive behaviour and highlights a need for regulation of violent media.
 Suggests that aggressive behaviour is caused due to similarities between characters and players as they become cognitively merged.
 Games could have non-human avatars to reduce relatability. Player has less aggressive thoughts.
 Could also have real names or profile pictures to reduce anonymity and increase accountability.

Question 93

disinhibition weaknesses
refuted by catharsis

Answer 93

 The explanation can be refuted by psychoanalytic theory of catharsis.
 Suggests that engaging with violent media would decrease levels of aggression due to safe emotional release of aggressive feelings.
 Therefore provides an alternative view and suggests that violent media may prevent the actual expression of violence.

Question 94

disinhibition weaknesses
individual differences

Answer 94

 Individual differences impact whether disinhibition occurs and leads to aggressive behaviour.
 Children in non-violent households are unlikely to experience sufficient disinhibition for them to display aggressive behaviour, whereas disinhibition effect is stronger when children experience physical punishment and identify more with violent characters.
 Relationship between media violence and disinhibition is complicated as disinhibition may depend on a range of factors.

Question 95

cognitive priming short term impact

Answer 95

• Exposure to violent media activates thoughts and ideas about violence.
• Triggers association with violence, activating violent neural links in brain (spreading activation).
• Increases the likelihood of aggression in people with aggressive schemas or scripts, as aggressive images (e.g. guns or weapons) act as cues.
• Intensity of violence and elapsed time determines strength and duration of effect.
   E.g. after watching a violent film, primed to be aggressive and may respond to cues with aggression due to an internal ‘script’ derived from media.

Question 96

cognitive priming long term impact

Answer 96

• Frequent activation through prolonged exposure lowers activation threshold for aggressive thoughts, so accessed more readily and used to process info.
• Over time aggressive schemas become chronically more accessible and are used to interpret info, making aggressive response more likely.

Question 97

cognitive priming strengths
research to support

Answer 97

 Research from Bushman to support
 200 undergrad psych students made free associations to homonyms after viewing a violent or non-violent video. Those who watched the violent video listed a greater number of aggressive associations.
 More cognitively primed to act aggressively and so choose more aggressive association as aggressive neural pathways are active.
 Exposure to violent media activates violent neural pathways.

 However, research from Atkin refutes the theory
 Priming more pronounced when violent media more realistic. Fictional violence may not have same effects of cognitive priming and so aggression less likely.
 Explanation lacks credibility as fails to acknowledge complexity of thought activation, perhaps neural links only activated when exposed to realistic violent media.

Question 98

cognitive priming strengths
practical applications

Answer 98

• Practical applications to reduce aggressive behaviour and regulate violent media
   Exposure to violent media and activation of neural pathways and aggressive scripts leads to aggressive behaviour.
   Cool down time after violent media implemented. Increased elapsed time to allow for deactivation of aggressive neural pathways.

Question 99

cognitive priming weaknesses
refuted by catharsis

Answer 99

 Suggests violent media would decrease aggressive response through channelling aggressive thoughts in a safe way.
 Provides alternative view and suggests that violent media may prevent actual expression of violence.

Question 100

cognitive priming weaknesses
no cause and effect

Answer 100

 Do not know if violent media prompts aggressive thoughts or whether aggressive thoughts already present – aggressive people more likely to engage in aggressive media.

Question 101

biological explanations

Answer 101

neural influences
hormonal influences
genetic influences
ethological explanations
evolutionary explanations

Question 102

neural influences

Answer 102

role of serotonin, limbic system (amygdala, hippocampus)

Question 103

role of serotonin

Answer 103

• Neurotransmitter which exerts a calming, inhibitory effect on neuronal firing in the brain.
• Low levels associated with impulsive behaviour, aggression and violent suicide.
• Inhibits firing of amygdala, which controls fear, anger and emotional responses.
• When low levels, more difficult for prefrontal cortex (reasoning, rationale, planning) to control emotional responses.
• When amygdala (fight or flight response) stimulated by external events, becomes more aggressive and more likely to act impulsively.

Question 104

limbic system amygdala

Answer 104

controls fight or flight response.
 Evaluates emotional importance of sensory / environmental information and promotes an appropriate response.
 If malfunctions due to tumour, damage or atypical development, aggressive behaviour is more likely as fight or flight response impaired and harmless events may be interpreted as a threat, producing aggression.

Question 105

limbic system hippocampus

Answer 105

helping form long-term memory.
 Allows us to recall past experiences and how we dealt with them and use this info to deal with current threat.
 E.g. if animals previously attacked by another animal, the next time they encounter that animal they are likely to respond with aggression or fear, whichever is more appropriate.
 Impaired function prevents nervous system from putting things in a relevant or meaningful context, causing the amygdala to respond inappropriately to sensory stimuli, resulting in aggressive behaviour.

Question 106

neural influences strengths
research support

Answer 106

 Research support from Rosado
 Compared 80 dogs referred for aggressive behaviour towards humans with 19 control dogs with no aggressive behaviour. The aggressive dogs averaged 278 units of serotonin, while the non-aggressive dogs averaged 387 units.
 Supports the theory which suggests that low levels are serotonin are linked with aggression as the more aggressive dogs had a lower amount of serotonin.

 However, generalisability is an issue
 Animals are used when studying neurotransmission as it is more ethical but serotonin is unlikely to have the same impact on human aggression as it does in animals. Aggression in animals is more instinctive, whereas humans’ logical thought and executive functioning is more likely to thwart an aggressive attack.
 Therefore, it is difficult to extrapolate findings.

Question 107

neural influences weaknesses
mixed research

Answer 107

 Research into serotonin and aggression is mixed.
 Some research demonstrated that high levels are implicated in aggression whilst others suggest low levels are responsible.
 Results are contradictory and theory cannot be deemed reliable.

Question 108

neural influences strengths
research support

Answer 108

 Research support from Raine
 Scanned the brains of 41 murderers and 41 non-murderers using PET scans. Found abnormalities in function of limbic system and activity in amygdala.
 Suggests that abnormalities in the amygdala are associated with aggression.

 However, there are validity issues in research.
 Use scanning to identify differences in brain structure / function between aggressive and non-aggressive individuals.
 Cannot establish cause and effect, do not know brain structure causes aggressive behaviour or that aggressive behaviour changes brain structure.
 Invalid to assume that brain regions such as limbic system are responsible for aggressive behaviour.

Question 109

neural influences weaknesses
biologically deterministic

Answer 109

 Explanation takes a biologically deterministic stance.
 Assumes humans have no control over aggressive behaviour but instead are governed by biological mechanisms beyond conscious control.
 Cannot control aggressive behaviour and so cannot be held accountable.
 Promotes aggressive behaviour as we do not feel in control of or responsible for our behaviour.

Question 110

neural influences strengths
practical applications

Answer 110

 Prevent reuptake of serotonin so increases serotonin activity in synapse.
 Contributes to society as helps us to understand human aggression and how to reduce its prevalence in society.

Question 111

hormonal influences

Answer 111

testosterone
testosterone and dominance
challenge hypothesis
testosterone and neural activity

Question 112

testosterone

Answer 112

• Androgen – chemical that develops and maintains male characteristics.
• Present in greater degree in males, tend to peak in adolescence.

Question 113

testosterone and dominance

Answer 113

• Link not cause and effect but makes aggression more likely.
• More testosterone, more competitive and dominant, explaining aggressive behaviour.

Question 114

challenge hypothesis

Answer 114

• Testosterone levels rise above baseline in response to social challenges.
• Thought to promote aggression, beneficial for reproductive success as can fight other males, protect women and children, making them a desirable mate according to evolution

Question 115

testosterone and neural activity

Answer 115

• High levels of testosterone thought to decrease activity in the orbito-frontal cortex.
• Heightened emotionally aggressive response.

Question 116

hormonal influences strengths
research support

Answer 116

 Research support from Dabbs
 Measured testosterone in saliva of 89 male prisoners, some involved in violent crime. They found that level of testosterone was higher in those involved in violent crime.
 Therefore supports the idea that higher testosterone increases the likelihood of aggression.

However, research into the role of testosterone is correlational.
 Positive correlation between levels of testosterone and levels of aggression, but we cannot say that increased testosterone is a direct causation of aggressive behaviour.
 May be other variables that impact testosterone levels and aggressive behaviour, meaning that cause and effect is unable to be established.

However, animal research might enable causal relationships to be established.
 Beeman manipulated levels of testosterone and measured the direct impact on aggressive behaviour. He found castration of rodents decreased intermale aggression but when later injected with testosterone, aggressive behaviour returned.
 Therefore, allowing researchers to determine cause and effect and know that testosterone has a direct impact on aggression.

Question 117

hormonal influences strengths
practical applications

Answer 117

 Can understand the role of testosterone in causing aggression, so we can manage aggression using medical intervention e.g. reduce testosterone in violent offenders by chemical castration.
 Would contribute to society by providing understanding of aggression and how to reduce in society.

Question 118

hormonal influences strengths
gender differences

Answer 118

 Hormonal explanations can account for gender differences in aggressive behaviour.
 80% of violent crimes committed by men
 Higher levels of testosterone in men, suggesting they will be more aggressive.

However, this explanation can lead to an alpha bias – where differences between males and females are exaggerated.
 Confirmation bias – expect men to be more aggressive than women.
 Biases judgement of violent case between a man and woman – assume the man is the perpetrator.

Question 119

hormonal influences weaknesses
biologically deterministic

Answer 119

 Assumes humans have no control over aggressive behaviour as aggression is governed by biological mechanisms beyond conscious control e.g. levels of testosterone, and that biological attributes dictate one’s destiny.
 Problematic as may excuse aggressive behaviour and people do not take responsibility for their actions.
 Cannot be held accountable and so cannot be punished.

Question 120

genetic influences

Answer 120

• Inherited genes may provide a predisposition for higher levels of aggression.
  genetic influences on testosterone
  extreme male XYY
  MAOA warrior gene

Question 121

genetic influences on testosterone

Answer 121

• Genes can determine the level of testosterone and the speed at which it is metabolised, which influences levels of aggression.

Question 122

extreme male XYY

Answer 122

• Chromosomal disorder caused by presence of extra Y chromosome.
• Men with this syndrome were thought to be overly aggressive and lacking in empathy.

Question 123

MAOA warrior gene

Answer 123

• Gene found on X chromosome that produces protein monoamine oxidase.
• Metabolises noradrenaline, serotonin and dopamine (neurotransmitters).
• Dysfunction results in neurotransmitters not being metabolised.
• MAOA-L (low activity variant) produces less of enzyme, so reduction in metabolism of neurotransmitters.
• Correlation between MAOA-L and aggressive behaviour.
   More neurotransmitters as broken down less, excess activity.

Question 124

genetic influences strengths
research support

Answer 124

Brengden
 Studied 234 twin pairs, aged 6 and found that there was a higher correlation between ratings of physical aggression of MZ twin pairs (0.79) than DZ. Scores for social aggression were roughly equally correlated.
 Suggests that there is a genetic influence on aggression, as identical twins were both more aggressive than non-identical twins.

However, the correlation for MZ twins is not 1 and there is not a 100% concordance rate despite 100% shared genes, so there must be other influences other than genes playing a role.

Question 125

genetic influences strengths
research support (Moffit)

Answer 125

 Subjects who suffered abuse and carried the low activity MAOA gene were 9 times as likely to be antisocial. 85% of seriously abuse children with MAOA-L engaged in violent criminal behaviour.
 Suggests a link between the presence of the MAOA-L gene and aggressive behaviour.

Question 126

genetic influences strengths
gender differences

Answer 126

 Genetic influences, specifically MAOA-L can help account for why aggression is more prominent in males.
 80% of violent crime is committed by men.
 Men are more likely to carry the MAOA-L gene as it is found on the X chromosome and is recessive, so only one copy is needed for a man to carry the gene, whereas women need two, so it is more rare.
 Therefore, genetic explanations might offer insight into gender differences in aggression which adds credibility to the theory.

Question 127

genetic influences weaknesses
biologically reductionist

Answer 127

 Reduce behaviour to biological factors and explain it in terms of the brain, neurotransmitters, hormones etc.
 Suggestion that MAOA-L is responsible for aggressive behaviour is focused at a chromosomal level.
 Ignores social and culture influences, leading to an incomplete explanation of aggressive behaviour. For example, Moffit found that subjects who carried the MAOA-L gene had also suffered abuse, which may increase likelihood to engage in aggressive behaviour.

Question 128

ethological explanations

Answer 128

• Evolutionary approach based on study of adaptation to environment.
• Suggests aggression is an innate adaptive response which has evolved to aid survival, as can help get resources (territory, food, status) or can scare off predators.

Question 129

genetic influences weaknesses
biologically deterministic

Answer 129

 If aggressive behaviour is explained solely by genetics, it leaves little room for free will and implies that people are not in control of aggressive behaviour.
 Suggests people cannot take accountability for their aggressive actions and cannot be punished.
 Not empowering – may not try to control behaviour
 Should be cautious when trying to explain human behaviour as biologically determined.

Question 130

Lorenz’s hydraulic model

Answer 130

• ACTION SPECIFIC ENERGY – animals build up pent up aggression over time.
• When sign stimulus (environmental cue) is presented, an innate releasing mechanism (IRM) is triggered, and innate neurological network hardwired into a species.
• IRM initiates a behavioural response called a fixed action pattern (FAP), which is an adaptive sequence/repertoire of stereotyped behaviour. They have the following characteristics:
   Ballistic – once initiated, they can’t be stopped
   Universal within a species – all members show same behaviour pattern
   Stereotyped – behaviour follows a certain pattern
   Specific to that stimulus

Question 131

ethological explanation strengths
research support

Answer 131

Tinbergen
 Male stickleback fish presented with a red-bellied stimulus fish, they responded aggressively consistently, regardless of the shape of the fake fish.
 Supports the idea of the sign stimulus (red underbelly) initiating the IRM and starting the fixed action pattern of the FAP.

Question 132

ethological explanation weaknesses
cannot generalise

Answer 132

 However, generalisability from animal research to human aggression lacks validity.
 Research to test this explanation based on animal studies, so is difficult to conclude whether human aggression has the same underlying principles.
 Human aggression is controlled by rationale (bigger PFC), and less for survival, whether animal aggression is more necessary for survival and is more of an innate response.
 Additionally, aggression cannot truly be measured in animals because intent is not known and cannot be communicated. What we interpret as aggression may be more of an act of survival.

Question 133

ethological explanation weaknesses
biologically deterministic

Answer 133

 Assumes humans have no control over whether aggressive but are controlled by the IRM that controls the FAP, which is an innate neurological response.
 Cannot be held accountable for actions and cannot be punished for aggressive crimes.

 However, human behaviour in reality is less varied and less predictable than this explanation would assume, suggesting that this is not a credible explanation of human aggression.

Question 134

ethological explanation weaknesses
individual differences

Answer 134

 Cannot account for individual differences in aggressive behaviour.
 Great variation in aggression cross-culturally, so cannot account for cultural factors e.g. peaceful vs aggressive cultures. Societal influences include learned values, socialisation, economics and gender.
 Therefore challenges assumption that human aggression is innate as not all humans respond in the same way.
 Ethological explanation alone is insufficient in accounting for human aggression.

Question 135

evolutionary explanations

Answer 135

• Aggression thought to be adaptive, enhancing an individual’s chances of reproductive success.
• Suggests the driving force behind aggressive behaviour is to ensure the survival of one’s genes.

behaviour and resources
reproductive success

Question 136

aggressive behaviour and resources

Answer 136

• Males may fight for food, shelter, money, car etc to show success of male.
• Genetic mutations lead to beneficial changes that increase chances of survival.
   Allows humans to adapt to environment and have advantage.
• Aggressive individuals are more likely to acquire and retain resources, so more likely to survive, so aggressive genes are passed onto subsequent generations.
• Aggressive behaviour seen as attractive as females look for males with resources – can provide for offspring, so reproductive success is higher in aggressive males.

Question 137

aggression and reproductive success

Answer 137

• Males are in competition with each other to attract a mate, so see other males as potential rivals.
   May fight other males – shows strength and security over woman.
• Male on male aggression derives from sexual jealousy of other males who may have sex with or steal their mates.
• Male might act aggressively towards his partner (inter-personal violence) as a result of sexual jealousy.
   As males lack security that their partner’s child is definitely theirs.
   Physical acts – hitting, slapping, coercing into sex.
   Emotional abuse – threatening with violence, controlling, deceiving and manipulating.
• If a female is sexually unfaithful, then the male may end up investing time and resources in someone else’s child but have evolutionary drive to invest resources in their own offspring.
   Emotional response of jealousy is evolutionary driven and promotes aggressive behaviour.
   Women only lose resources, whereas man cannot be sure of own offspring and reproductive success – may waste resources on another’s child.
• Such jealousy can lead to mate-retention strategies (to keep mate from straying), which might include aggressive behaviour.
   Mate guarding - losing a partner to or impregnated by competitor can have detrimental consequences for evolutionary fitness of an individual.
   E.g. constantly checking on partner, physically restricting contact with potential romantic competitors, linked to jealousy.
• Male violence may be motivated by jealousy to help ensure own paternity and genetic success.

Question 138

evolutionary explanation strengths
research support

Answer 138

Shackleford
 Men’s use of particular mate retention behaviours was related positively to female-directed violence. Men who used guarding behaviours were more likely to be aggressive towards their partners.
 Supports idea that men direct their violence towards women.
 However, research supporting theory can be invalid.
 Relies upon correlational data – cannot establish cause and effect that sexual jealousy causes violence.
 May be other contributing factors not considered.

Question 139

evolutionary explanation strengths
gender differences

Answer 139

 Evolutionary explanation can account for gender differences in aggression.
 80% of violent crimes committed by men.
 Men have more to lose – paternal certainty, lose security that a partner’s child is their own offspring, while women only lose resources.
 More motivation for a man to be aggressive to maintain a relationship.
 However, can lead to alpha bias – where differences between males and females are exaggerated.
 Leads to social sensitivity – suggests that women are to blame for violent acts committed against them.
 Justifies and condones male violence on women – due to natural belief of unfaithfulness.

Question 140

evolutionary explanation weaknesses
biologically deterministic

Answer 140

 Assumes humans have little to no control over whether aggressive behaviour is shown, but instead are governed by evolutionary mechanisms beyond conscious control.
 People cannot be held accountable for their actions and therefore should not be punished.