Research Methods complete Flashcards
define aim
A general statement that explains the purpose of a study
define theory
A suggested explanation for behaviour
define independent variable (IV)
The variable that is changed by the researcher or varies naturally
define dependent variable (DV)
The variable measured by the researcher
define hypotheses
A clear, precise testable statement that states the relationship between the variables
define alternative hypothesis
A statement of relationship between the variables
define null hypothesis
A statement of no relationship between variables
define operationalisation
Making variables clear and precise and identifying operational instructions
what is cause and effect?
The changes in the DV are due to the IV only
define extraneous variable (EV)
Something affecting the DV that is not the IV
what are standardised procedures?
All participants receive the same instructions so that the study can be easily repeated
what is randomisation and why is it used?
Randomisation is using chance to design the investigation, used to reduce bias
define quantitative method/data
Collecting data in numbers
define qualitative method/data
Collecting data in words
what are the 3 types of experiments?
Lab
Field
Natural
define lab experiment
Highly controlled conditions, conducted in a laboratory
define field experiment
Study conducted in its natural setting where researcher manipulates the IV
define natural experiment
Study conducted in its natural setting with a naturally occurring IV. Researcher records the change in DV
give 4 brief evaluation points of lab experiments
STRENGTH - EVs can be controlled
STRENGTH - can use standardised procedures
WEAKNESS - the environment is not like everyday life
WEAKNESS - participants may be aware of testing
elaborate strength of lab experiments (EV’s can be controlled)
EV’s can be controlled so cause and effect can be established
elaborate strength of lab experiments (can use standardised procedures)
Standardised procedures allow for the experiment to be repeated so validity can be confirmed
elaborate weakness of lab experiments (environment unlike everyday life)
Environment unlike everyday life
Participants may behave unnaturally so behaviour can’t be generalised to the wider world
elaborate weakness of lab experiments (participants may be aware)
Participants may be aware they’re being tested and change their behaviour to ‘help’ the researcher
This makes the data invalid
give 4 brief evaluation points of field experiments
STRENGTH - more realistic than lab experiments
STRENGTH - some control of EVs
WEAKNESS - researcher may lose control of some EVs
WEAKNESS - there may be ethical issues with people not being aware of their participation so can’t give informed consent
elaborate strength of field experiments (more realistic than lab)
More realistic than lab because the natural environment enhances the realism of the experiment and increases validity of the results
elaborate strength of field experiments (some control of EV’s)
Standardised procedures can be used to control some EV’s so cause and effect can be shown and conclusions are more valid
elaborate weakness of field experiments (may lose control of some EV’s)
A real life setting makes it hard to control all EV’s and this makes it difficult to show cause and effect
elaborate weakness of field experiments (ethical issues)
Ethical issues as participants are unaware and can’t give informed consent due to the nature of the experiment type
give 4 brief evaluation points of natural experiments
STRENGTH - high validity
STRENGTH - EV’s well controlled
WEAKNESS - few opportunities to conduct
WEAKNESS - partcipant variables
elaborate strength of natural experiments (high validity)
High validity
Often variables are naturally occurring and relate to everyday life increasing validity
elaborate strength of natural experiments (EV’s well controlled)
EV’s well controlled
The DV is often tested in a lab and standardised procedures can be followed, eliminating EV’s
elaborate weakness of natural experiments (few opportunities to conduct)
May be few opportunities to conduct this research as it is focused on natural, infrequent events
This reduces the usefulness of the experiment type
elaborate weakness of natural experiments (participant variables)
Participant variables may affect the outcome
As the researcher can’t use randomisation this may act as an EV affecting the results
define experimental design
The different ways participants can be organised in relation to the conditions of an experiment
give the 3 types of experimental design
Independent groups
Repeated measures
Matched pairs
define independent groups
Seperate groups who are each allocated a different level of the IV
define repeated measures
Each participant takes part in both conditions, receives all levels of the IV
define matched pairs
Participants are allocated another person based on participant variables and each do a different level of the IV
give 2 evaluation points of independent groups
STRENGTH - no order effects
WEAKNESS - participants in each group are different
elaborate strength of independent groups (no order effects)
Independent groups have no order effects as each participant does the task once and has no practice
elaborate weakness of independent groups (participants in each group are different)
Participants in each group are different
which means a difference in performance can be attributed to this rather than the IV
give 3 evaluation points of repeated measures
STRENGTH - no participant variables
STRENGTH - fewer participants needed
WEAKNESS - has order effects
elaborate strength of repeated measures (no participant variables)
Each participant is compared against themselves so participant variables are removed and we can be sure that it is the IV affecting the results
elaborate strength of repeated measures (fewer participants needed)
Fewer participants are needed than an independent groups design so the study is cheaper and easier to conduct
elaborate weakness of repeated measures (has order effects)
Order effects occur when participants are tested twice The order in which they do the tasks may make a difference, e.g. a practice effect
This affects the validity of the results
give 3 evaluation points of matched pairs
STRENGTH - no order effects
STRENGTH - fewer participant variables
WEAKNESS - takes time and effort
elaborate strength of matched pairs (no order effects)
No order effects as participants only tested once
This means the results are representative of real life reactions
elaborate strength of matched pairs (fewer participant variables)
Fewer participant variables
Those taking part are matched on a variable that is important for the experiment
This enhances the validity of the results.
elaborate weakness of matched pairs (takes time and effort)
Takes time and effort
It takes time to collect the data and effort to match the participants
Matching may also be inaccurate so matched pairs is sometimes for very little gain
define sample
A subset of a target population that aims to be representative of the wider population
define target population
The group the researcher is interested in and wants to study
define random sampling and provide a method
Random sampling - a lottery method so every person in the sample has an equal chance of selection
Method:
Obtain a list of participants and assign a number 2 each
Randomly pick numbers out of a hat
define opportunity sampling
The researcher selects people who happen to be there at the time
define systematic sampling
Systematic sampling - selecting every nth person from a list of the target population
define stratified sampling and provide a method
Stratified sampling - Participants are selected from subgroups in the target pop. based upon their frequency in the pop.
Method:
Identify number of target pop. in each subgroup
Pick a sample size
Replicate proportion of people in sample
give 2 evaluation points of random sampling
STRENGTH - no bias
WEAKNESS - takes a lot of time and effort
elaborate strength of random sampling (no bias)
There is no bias as everyone has an equal chance of selection, so the sample should be representative of the population
elaborate weakness of random sampling (takes a lot of time and effort)
This takes more time and effort than other methods
as you need to obtain a list of all members and randomly select them
give 2 evaluation points of opportunity sampling
STRENGTH - it is easy, quick and cheap
WEAKNESS - the sample is likely to be unrepresentative
elaborate strength of opportunity sampling (easy, quick and cheap)
It is easy, quick and cheap to carry out because you choose people who are easily nearby
elaborate weakness of opportunity sampling (the sample is likely to be unrepresentative)
The sample is likely to be unrepresentative especially if drawn from one place so generalisability of the results is reduced
give 2 evaluation points of systematic sampling
STRENGTH - it avoids researcher bias
WEAKNESS - may still be biased
elaborate strength of systematic sampling (it avoids researcher bias)
It avoids researcher bias
Once system has been selected researcher has no say increasing the representativeness of the sample
elaborate weakness of systematic sampling (may still be biased)
May still be biased
May end up with a sample consisting of one particular group of people, decreasing representativeness
give 3 evaluation points of stratified sampling
STRENGTH - most representative method
WEAKNESS - can be biased
WEAKNESS - lengthy process
elaborate strength of stratified sampling (most representative method)
The most representative of all the sampling methods Researcher identifies important subgroups and makes sure they are represented in proportion - this enhances representativeness
elaborate weakness of stratified sampling (can be biased)
Can be biased
Researcher chooses subgroups to use, decreasing representativeness
elaborate weakness of stratified sampling (lengthy process)
Lengthy process
Participants chosen may not always give consent or want to take part at all
So the method is not used often
define ethical issue
When there is a conflict between a participants right to be safe and the goals of research
what are the 5 main potential ethical issues
Informed consent Deception Protection from harm Privacy Confidentiality
what is informed consent?
Participants should be given comprehensive info about the nature and purpose of a study and their role in it.
This should include the aims, procedures and right to withdraw
what is deception?
Participants shouldn’t be lied to about the aims of a study, mild deception is justifiable.
Major deception only permitted if the benefits outweigh the harm.
what is protection from harm?
Participant’s physical and psychological safety should be protected at all times
Stress and embarrassment is included in this
Participants must be reminded they can leave at any time
what is privacy?
Participants have the right to control data about themselves
It is acceptable to make public observations but there is no universal definition of a public place
what is confidentiality?
Personal data should be protected and respected
what are the BPS guidelines?
A code of conduct every researcher in the UK must follow
how do you deal with informed consent
Participants sign a form that tells them what is expected of them
If this is not possible at the start, they sign a form at the end of the study (retroactive consent)
how do you deal with deception and protection from harm
Participants should be given a full debriefing at the end to explain the true aims and reduce distress
They should also be offered counselling and the chance to withdraw their data
how do you deal with privacy and confidentiality
All participants should be anonymous
they can be referred to by a number or initials
define interview and give the 3 types
An interaction between an interviewer and interviewee in which questions are asked to determine thoughts and feelings on a particular topic
Structured, Unstructured and Semi-structured
define structured interview
Questions are pre prepared and follow up questions also follow a script
define unstructured interview
Questions are not prepared and instead asked based on a general aim and previous answers
define semi structured interview
Some questions are prepared and follow up questions are asked from previous answers
give 4 evaluation points of interviews
STRENGTH - produce extensive information
STRENGTH - insight can be gained into a person’s thoughts and feelings
WEAKNESS - data can be difficult to analyse
WEAKNESS - people may feel uncomfortable giving info face2face
elaborate strength of interviews (produce extensive information)
Produce extensive information especially unstructured interviews which means unexpected results can occur
elaborate strength of interviews (insight can be gained into a person’s thoughts and feelings)
Insight can be gained into a person’s thoughts and feelings
This provides a different perspective to observations which only show what people do, not what they think
elaborate weakness of interviews (data can be difficult to analyse)
Data can be difficult to analyse
Data in words tends to be of larger range making it hard to draw clear conclusions from it
elaborate weakness of interviews (people may feel uncomfortable giving info face2face)
People may feel uncomfortable giving information face2face, especially if questions are on a sensitive topic
This can limit the amount of information collected
define questionnaire
A prepared list of written questions completed in writing, over the phone or online
give the difference between open and closed questions
Open questions are answered in more detail, qualitative data
Closed questions have a fixed range of possible answers, produce quantitative data
give 4 evaluation points of questionnaires
STRENGTH - lots of information gathered quickly
STRENGTH - data easier to analyse than interviews
WEAKNESS - social desirability bias
WEAKNESS - leading questions
elaborate strength of interviews (lots of information gathered quickly)
Lots of information can be gathered quickly as questionnaires can be sent to many people
This makes research easier and generalisations easier
elaborate strength of interviews (data easier to analyse than interviews)
Data is easier to analyse than interviews because closed questions produce quantitative data which is easy to put on a graph
elaborate weakness of interviews (social desirability bias)
Social desirability bias
People may not always answer truthfully as they want to be liked
This reduces the validity of their results and the data collected
elaborate weakness of interviews (leading questions)
Leading questions
Some questions may hint at an answer or be unclear meaning respondents find it difficult to answer them
Therefore responses may lack validity
define observation
Researcher watches or listens to participants engaging in whatever behaviour is being studied and records observations
what are the three types of observation studies
Naturalistic versus controlled
Covert versus overt
Participants versus non-participant
categories of behaviour
When behaviour is broken down into units that can be observed and recorded
interobserver reliability
The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in the observation study
how to determine interobserver reliability
Create behaviour checklist and observe
Compare the data recorded and discuss differences
If there are many differences then categories need to be changed or rewritten
give 4 evaluation points of observations
STRENGTH - better indicator of behaviour than interviews or questionnaires
STRENGTH - look at real life behaviour
WEAKNESS - may be ethical issues
WEAKNESS - observers may be biased
elaborate strength of observations (better indicator of behaviour than interviews or questionnaires)
Better indicator of behaviour than interviews or questionnaires
People are acting and data is based upon what people do, enhancing the validity of data
elaborate strength of observations (look at real life behaviour)
Look at real life behaviour
People may be unaware that they are being observed so the data will have greater validity
elaborate weakness of observations (may be ethical issues)
May be ethical issues
You can’t always gain consent when in public
so some observations shouldn’t be conducted
elaborate weakness of observations (observers may be biased)
Observers may be biased
An observer’s expectations can influence what they see and therefore observations lack validity
define correlation
A mathematical technique used to investigate the relationship between two variables, co-variables
They tell us the strength and direction of association between the co-variables
All plotted on a scatter diagram
positive correlation
As one variable increases so does the other
upward slope
negative correlation
As one variable increases the other decreases
downwards slope
zero correlation
no relationship between the co-variables
give 4 evaluation points of correlations
STRENGTH - good starting point
STRENGTH - can be used to investigate more complex relationships
WEAKNESS - do not tell us if a co-variable causes the other
WEAKNESS - intervening variables may affect the correlation
elaborate strength of correlations (good starting point)
Good starting point for research
If two variables are related this gives researchers good basis and ideas for future investigations
elaborate strength of correlations (can be used to investigate more complex relationships)
Can be used to investigate more complex relationships
e:g the curvilinear relationship between alertness and time of day
This means correlations have many uses
elaborate weakness of correlations (do not tell us if a co-variable causes the other)
Do not tell us if a co-variable causes the other
meaning it is hard to establish cause and effect
This limits the usefulness of the technique
elaborate weakness of correlations (intervening variables may affect the correlation)
Intervening variables may affect the correlation
as there is no control of EV’s
This means it is possible to draw incorrect conclusions
define case study
An in depth investigation of a single individual,institution or event
Often involves unusual events
what type of method is a case study?
A qualitative method
Tend to be longitudinal so the researcher can observe how behaviour changes over months or years
give 4 evaluation points of case studies
STRENGTH - tend to not have a specific aim
STRENGTH - good method for studying rare behaviour
WEAKNESS - only focus on one individual or event
WEAKNESS - researcher may be subjective
elaborate strength of case studies (tend to not have a specific aim)
Tend to not have a specific aim
This means they are more open minded and don’t mind what they discover, increasing validity
elaborate strength of case studies (good method for studying rare behaviour)
Good method for studying rare behaviour that can’t be investigated in experiments
This gives a greater insight into unresearched topics
elaborate weakness of case studies (only focus on one individual or event)
Only focus on one individual or event
This means it is difficult to generalise the results to other people, reducing the validity
elaborate weakness of case studies (researcher may be subjective)
Researcher may be subjective
Information collected may be biased by the researcher’s reading of the case
so conclusions may lack validity
define reliability
The consistency of an measurement, the results should be the same each time
defne validity
Whether a result is true, how far do the results represent real life
give 2 evaluations of quantitative data
STRENGTH - easy to analyse
WEAKNESS - lacks depth and detail
elaborate strength of quantitative data (easy to analyse)
Easy to analyse
Data can be converted into averages,charts and graph
This means groups can easily be compared
elaborate weakness of quantitative data (lacks depth and detail)
Lacks depth and detail
This is because we gain little information about thoughts and abilities
give 2 evaluations of qualitative data
STRENGTH - has more depth and detail
WEAKNESS - more difficult to analyse
elaborate strength of qualitative data (has more depth and detail)
Has more depth and detail
Participant is not restricted to the type of data they provide so the researcher gains more insight
For this reason qualitative data has higher validity
elaborate weakness of qualitative data (more difficult to analyse)
More difficult to analyse
Data collected may be hard to summarise and draw conclusions from
This means conclusions may be based on the researcher’s opinion
define primary data
Data collected firsthand by the researcher for the purpose of the research
define secondary data
Data collected by someone other than the researcher
give 2 evaluation points of primary data
STRENGTH - suits the aims of the research
WEAKNESS - takes longer to collect than secondary data
elaborate strength of primary data (suits the aims of the research)
Suits the aims of the research
Primary data comes from the participants themselves
This means the data may be more useful
elaborate weakness of primary data (takes longer to collect than secondary data)
Takes longer to collect than secondary data
Designing an experiment is time consuming and costly as the researcher has to design, test the procedures and find participants
It is much easier to use data that is already validated
give 2 evaluation points of secondary data
STRENGTH - easy to access
WEAKNESS - may not meet the researchers aim
elaborate strength of secondary data (easy to access)
Easy to access
Time taken to develop and carry out the research is not needed
This means the research involves little effort and little expense
elaborate weakness of secondary data (may not meet the researchers aim)
May not meet the researchers aim
For example, the data may originate from out of data or poorly designed studies
This may reduce the validity of the research
define normal distribution
A symmetrical spread of data that forms a bell shaped curve
Mean, mode and median are all at the same point
