Research Methods complete Flashcards
1
Q
define aim
A
A general statement that explains the purpose of a study
2
Q
define theory
A
A suggested explanation for behaviour
3
Q
define independent variable (IV)
A
The variable that is changed by the researcher or varies naturally
4
Q
define dependent variable (DV)
A
The variable measured by the researcher
5
Q
define hypotheses
A
A clear, precise testable statement that states the relationship between the variables
6
Q
define alternative hypothesis
A
A statement of relationship between the variables
7
Q
define null hypothesis
A
A statement of no relationship between variables
8
Q
define operationalisation
A
Making variables clear and precise and identifying operational instructions
9
Q
what is cause and effect?
A
The changes in the DV are due to the IV only
10
Q
define extraneous variable (EV)
A
Something affecting the DV that is not the IV
11
Q
what are standardised procedures?
A
All participants receive the same instructions so that the study can be easily repeated
12
Q
what is randomisation and why is it used?
A
Randomisation is using chance to design the investigation, used to reduce bias
13
Q
define quantitative method/data
A
Collecting data in numbers
14
Q
define qualitative method/data
A
Collecting data in words
15
Q
what are the 3 types of experiments?
A
Lab
Field
Natural
16
Q
define lab experiment
A
Highly controlled conditions, conducted in a laboratory
17
Q
define field experiment
A
Study conducted in its natural setting where researcher manipulates the IV
18
Q
define natural experiment
A
Study conducted in its natural setting with a naturally occurring IV. Researcher records the change in DV
19
Q
give 4 brief evaluation points of lab experiments
A
STRENGTH - EVs can be controlled
STRENGTH - can use standardised procedures
WEAKNESS - the environment is not like everyday life
WEAKNESS - participants may be aware of testing
20
Q
elaborate strength of lab experiments (EV’s can be controlled)
A
EV’s can be controlled so cause and effect can be established
21
Q
elaborate strength of lab experiments (can use standardised procedures)
A
Standardised procedures allow for the experiment to be repeated so validity can be confirmed
22
Q
elaborate weakness of lab experiments (environment unlike everyday life)
A
Environment unlike everyday life
Participants may behave unnaturally so behaviour can’t be generalised to the wider world
23
Q
elaborate weakness of lab experiments (participants may be aware)
A
Participants may be aware they’re being tested and change their behaviour to ‘help’ the researcher
This makes the data invalid
24
Q
give 4 brief evaluation points of field experiments
A
STRENGTH - more realistic than lab experiments
STRENGTH - some control of EVs
WEAKNESS - researcher may lose control of some EVs
WEAKNESS - there may be ethical issues with people not being aware of their participation so can’t give informed consent
25
elaborate strength of field experiments (more realistic than lab)
More realistic than lab because the natural environment enhances the realism of the experiment and increases validity of the results
26
elaborate strength of field experiments (some control of EV's)
Standardised procedures can be used to control some EV's so cause and effect can be shown and conclusions are more valid
27
elaborate weakness of field experiments (may lose control of some EV's)
A real life setting makes it hard to control all EV's and this makes it difficult to show cause and effect
28
elaborate weakness of field experiments (ethical issues)
Ethical issues as participants are unaware and can't give informed consent due to the nature of the experiment type
29
give 4 brief evaluation points of natural experiments
STRENGTH - high validity
STRENGTH - EV's well controlled
WEAKNESS - few opportunities to conduct
WEAKNESS - partcipant variables
30
elaborate strength of natural experiments (high validity)
High validity
| Often variables are naturally occurring and relate to everyday life increasing validity
31
elaborate strength of natural experiments (EV's well controlled)
EV's well controlled
| The DV is often tested in a lab and standardised procedures can be followed, eliminating EV's
32
elaborate weakness of natural experiments (few opportunities to conduct)
May be few opportunities to conduct this research as it is focused on natural, infrequent events
This reduces the usefulness of the experiment type
33
elaborate weakness of natural experiments (participant variables)
Participant variables may affect the outcome
| As the researcher can't use randomisation this may act as an EV affecting the results
34
define experimental design
The different ways participants can be organised in relation to the conditions of an experiment
35
give the 3 types of experimental design
Independent groups
Repeated measures
Matched pairs
36
define independent groups
Seperate groups who are each allocated a different level of the IV
37
define repeated measures
Each participant takes part in both conditions, receives all levels of the IV
38
define matched pairs
Participants are allocated another person based on participant variables and each do a different level of the IV
39
give 2 evaluation points of independent groups
STRENGTH - no order effects
| WEAKNESS - participants in each group are different
40
elaborate strength of independent groups (no order effects)
Independent groups have no order effects as each participant does the task once and has no practice
41
elaborate weakness of independent groups (participants in each group are different)
Participants in each group are different
| which means a difference in performance can be attributed to this rather than the IV
42
give 3 evaluation points of repeated measures
STRENGTH - no participant variables
STRENGTH - fewer participants needed
WEAKNESS - has order effects
43
elaborate strength of repeated measures (no participant variables)
Each participant is compared against themselves so participant variables are removed and we can be sure that it is the IV affecting the results
44
elaborate strength of repeated measures (fewer participants needed)
Fewer participants are needed than an independent groups design so the study is cheaper and easier to conduct
45
elaborate weakness of repeated measures (has order effects)
Order effects occur when participants are tested twice The order in which they do the tasks may make a difference, e.g. a practice effect
This affects the validity of the results
46
give 3 evaluation points of matched pairs
STRENGTH - no order effects
STRENGTH - fewer participant variables
WEAKNESS - takes time and effort
47
elaborate strength of matched pairs (no order effects)
No order effects as participants only tested once
| This means the results are representative of real life reactions
48
elaborate strength of matched pairs (fewer participant variables)
Fewer participant variables
Those taking part are matched on a variable that is important for the experiment
This enhances the validity of the results.
49
elaborate weakness of matched pairs (takes time and effort)
Takes time and effort
It takes time to collect the data and effort to match the participants
Matching may also be inaccurate so matched pairs is sometimes for very little gain
50
define sample
A subset of a target population that aims to be representative of the wider population
51
define target population
The group the researcher is interested in and wants to study
52
define random sampling and provide a method
Random sampling - a lottery method so every person in the sample has an equal chance of selection
Method:
Obtain a list of participants and assign a number 2 each
Randomly pick numbers out of a hat
53
define opportunity sampling
The researcher selects people who happen to be there at the time
54
define systematic sampling
Systematic sampling - selecting every nth person from a list of the target population
55
define stratified sampling and provide a method
Stratified sampling - Participants are selected from subgroups in the target pop. based upon their frequency in the pop.
Method:
Identify number of target pop. in each subgroup
Pick a sample size
Replicate proportion of people in sample
56
give 2 evaluation points of random sampling
STRENGTH - no bias
| WEAKNESS - takes a lot of time and effort
57
elaborate strength of random sampling (no bias)
There is no bias as everyone has an equal chance of selection, so the sample should be representative of the population
58
elaborate weakness of random sampling (takes a lot of time and effort)
This takes more time and effort than other methods
| as you need to obtain a list of all members and randomly select them
59
give 2 evaluation points of opportunity sampling
STRENGTH - it is easy, quick and cheap
| WEAKNESS - the sample is likely to be unrepresentative
60
elaborate strength of opportunity sampling (easy, quick and cheap)
It is easy, quick and cheap to carry out because you choose people who are easily nearby
61
elaborate weakness of opportunity sampling (the sample is likely to be unrepresentative)
The sample is likely to be unrepresentative especially if drawn from one place so generalisability of the results is reduced
62
give 2 evaluation points of systematic sampling
STRENGTH - it avoids researcher bias
WEAKNESS - may still be biased
63
elaborate strength of systematic sampling (it avoids researcher bias)
It avoids researcher bias
| Once system has been selected researcher has no say increasing the representativeness of the sample
64
elaborate weakness of systematic sampling (may still be biased)
May still be biased
| May end up with a sample consisting of one particular group of people, decreasing representativeness
65
give 3 evaluation points of stratified sampling
STRENGTH - most representative method
WEAKNESS - can be biased
WEAKNESS - lengthy process
66
elaborate strength of stratified sampling (most representative method)
The most representative of all the sampling methods Researcher identifies important subgroups and makes sure they are represented in proportion - this enhances representativeness
67
elaborate weakness of stratified sampling (can be biased)
Can be biased
| Researcher chooses subgroups to use, decreasing representativeness
68
elaborate weakness of stratified sampling (lengthy process)
Lengthy process
Participants chosen may not always give consent or want to take part at all
So the method is not used often
69
define ethical issue
When there is a conflict between a participants right to be safe and the goals of research
70
what are the 5 main potential ethical issues
```
Informed consent
Deception
Protection from harm
Privacy
Confidentiality
```
71
what is informed consent?
Participants should be given comprehensive info about the nature and purpose of a study and their role in it.
This should include the aims, procedures and right to withdraw
72
what is deception?
Participants shouldn't be lied to about the aims of a study, mild deception is justifiable.
Major deception only permitted if the benefits outweigh the harm.
73
what is protection from harm?
Participant's physical and psychological safety should be protected at all times
Stress and embarrassment is included in this
Participants must be reminded they can leave at any time
74
what is privacy?
Participants have the right to control data about themselves
It is acceptable to make public observations but there is no universal definition of a public place
75
what is confidentiality?
Personal data should be protected and respected
76
what are the BPS guidelines?
A code of conduct every researcher in the UK must follow
77
how do you deal with informed consent
Participants sign a form that tells them what is expected of them
If this is not possible at the start, they sign a form at the end of the study (retroactive consent)
78
how do you deal with deception and protection from harm
Participants should be given a full debriefing at the end to explain the true aims and reduce distress
They should also be offered counselling and the chance to withdraw their data
79
how do you deal with privacy and confidentiality
All participants should be anonymous
| they can be referred to by a number or initials
80
define interview and give the 3 types
An interaction between an interviewer and interviewee in which questions are asked to determine thoughts and feelings on a particular topic
Structured, Unstructured and Semi-structured
81
define structured interview
Questions are pre prepared and follow up questions also follow a script
82
define unstructured interview
Questions are not prepared and instead asked based on a general aim and previous answers
83
define semi structured interview
Some questions are prepared and follow up questions are asked from previous answers
84
give 4 evaluation points of interviews
STRENGTH - produce extensive information
STRENGTH - insight can be gained into a person's thoughts and feelings
WEAKNESS - data can be difficult to analyse
WEAKNESS - people may feel uncomfortable giving info face2face
85
elaborate strength of interviews (produce extensive information)
Produce extensive information especially unstructured interviews which means unexpected results can occur
86
elaborate strength of interviews (insight can be gained into a person's thoughts and feelings)
Insight can be gained into a person's thoughts and feelings
| This provides a different perspective to observations which only show what people do, not what they think
87
elaborate weakness of interviews (data can be difficult to analyse)
Data can be difficult to analyse
| Data in words tends to be of larger range making it hard to draw clear conclusions from it
88
elaborate weakness of interviews (people may feel uncomfortable giving info face2face)
People may feel uncomfortable giving information face2face, especially if questions are on a sensitive topic
This can limit the amount of information collected
89
define questionnaire
A prepared list of written questions completed in writing, over the phone or online
90
give the difference between open and closed questions
Open questions are answered in more detail, qualitative data
Closed questions have a fixed range of possible answers, produce quantitative data
91
give 4 evaluation points of questionnaires
STRENGTH - lots of information gathered quickly
STRENGTH - data easier to analyse than interviews
WEAKNESS - social desirability bias
WEAKNESS - leading questions
92
elaborate strength of interviews (lots of information gathered quickly)
Lots of information can be gathered quickly as questionnaires can be sent to many people
This makes research easier and generalisations easier
93
elaborate strength of interviews (data easier to analyse than interviews)
Data is easier to analyse than interviews because closed questions produce quantitative data which is easy to put on a graph
94
elaborate weakness of interviews (social desirability bias)
Social desirability bias
People may not always answer truthfully as they want to be liked
This reduces the validity of their results and the data collected
95
elaborate weakness of interviews (leading questions)
Leading questions
Some questions may hint at an answer or be unclear meaning respondents find it difficult to answer them
Therefore responses may lack validity
96
define observation
Researcher watches or listens to participants engaging in whatever behaviour is being studied and records observations
97
what are the three types of observation studies
Naturalistic versus controlled
Covert versus overt
Participants versus non-participant
98
categories of behaviour
When behaviour is broken down into units that can be observed and recorded
99
interobserver reliability
The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in the observation study
100
how to determine interobserver reliability
Create behaviour checklist and observe
Compare the data recorded and discuss differences
If there are many differences then categories need to be changed or rewritten
101
give 4 evaluation points of observations
STRENGTH - better indicator of behaviour than interviews or questionnaires
STRENGTH - look at real life behaviour
WEAKNESS - may be ethical issues
WEAKNESS - observers may be biased
102
elaborate strength of observations (better indicator of behaviour than interviews or questionnaires)
Better indicator of behaviour than interviews or questionnaires
People are acting and data is based upon what people do, enhancing the validity of data
103
elaborate strength of observations (look at real life behaviour)
Look at real life behaviour
| People may be unaware that they are being observed so the data will have greater validity
104
elaborate weakness of observations (may be ethical issues)
May be ethical issues
You can't always gain consent when in public
so some observations shouldn't be conducted
105
elaborate weakness of observations (observers may be biased)
Observers may be biased
| An observer's expectations can influence what they see and therefore observations lack validity
106
define correlation
A mathematical technique used to investigate the relationship between two variables, co-variables
They tell us the strength and direction of association between the co-variables
All plotted on a scatter diagram
107
positive correlation
As one variable increases so does the other
| upward slope
108
negative correlation
As one variable increases the other decreases
| downwards slope
109
zero correlation
no relationship between the co-variables
110
give 4 evaluation points of correlations
STRENGTH - good starting point
STRENGTH - can be used to investigate more complex relationships
WEAKNESS - do not tell us if a co-variable causes the other
WEAKNESS - intervening variables may affect the correlation
111
elaborate strength of correlations (good starting point)
Good starting point for research
| If two variables are related this gives researchers good basis and ideas for future investigations
112
elaborate strength of correlations (can be used to investigate more complex relationships)
Can be used to investigate more complex relationships
e:g the curvilinear relationship between alertness and time of day
This means correlations have many uses
113
elaborate weakness of correlations (do not tell us if a co-variable causes the other)
Do not tell us if a co-variable causes the other
meaning it is hard to establish cause and effect
This limits the usefulness of the technique
114
elaborate weakness of correlations (intervening variables may affect the correlation)
Intervening variables may affect the correlation
as there is no control of EV's
This means it is possible to draw incorrect conclusions
115
define case study
An in depth investigation of a single individual,institution or event
Often involves unusual events
116
what type of method is a case study?
A qualitative method
| Tend to be longitudinal so the researcher can observe how behaviour changes over months or years
117
give 4 evaluation points of case studies
STRENGTH - tend to not have a specific aim
STRENGTH - good method for studying rare behaviour
WEAKNESS - only focus on one individual or event
WEAKNESS - researcher may be subjective
118
elaborate strength of case studies (tend to not have a specific aim)
Tend to not have a specific aim
| This means they are more open minded and don't mind what they discover, increasing validity
119
elaborate strength of case studies (good method for studying rare behaviour)
Good method for studying rare behaviour that can't be investigated in experiments
This gives a greater insight into unresearched topics
120
elaborate weakness of case studies (only focus on one individual or event)
Only focus on one individual or event
| This means it is difficult to generalise the results to other people, reducing the validity
121
elaborate weakness of case studies (researcher may be subjective)
Researcher may be subjective
Information collected may be biased by the researcher's reading of the case
so conclusions may lack validity
122
define reliability
The consistency of an measurement, the results should be the same each time
123
defne validity
Whether a result is true, how far do the results represent real life
124
give 2 evaluations of quantitative data
STRENGTH - easy to analyse
| WEAKNESS - lacks depth and detail
125
elaborate strength of quantitative data (easy to analyse)
Easy to analyse
Data can be converted into averages,charts and graph
This means groups can easily be compared
126
elaborate weakness of quantitative data (lacks depth and detail)
Lacks depth and detail
| This is because we gain little information about thoughts and abilities
127
give 2 evaluations of qualitative data
STRENGTH - has more depth and detail
| WEAKNESS - more difficult to analyse
128
elaborate strength of qualitative data (has more depth and detail)
Has more depth and detail
Participant is not restricted to the type of data they provide so the researcher gains more insight
For this reason qualitative data has higher validity
129
elaborate weakness of qualitative data (more difficult to analyse)
More difficult to analyse
Data collected may be hard to summarise and draw conclusions from
This means conclusions may be based on the researcher's opinion
130
define primary data
Data collected firsthand by the researcher for the purpose of the research
131
define secondary data
Data collected by someone other than the researcher
132
give 2 evaluation points of primary data
STRENGTH - suits the aims of the research
| WEAKNESS - takes longer to collect than secondary data
133
elaborate strength of primary data (suits the aims of the research)
Suits the aims of the research
Primary data comes from the participants themselves
This means the data may be more useful
134
elaborate weakness of primary data (takes longer to collect than secondary data)
Takes longer to collect than secondary data
Designing an experiment is time consuming and costly as the researcher has to design, test the procedures and find participants
It is much easier to use data that is already validated
135
give 2 evaluation points of secondary data
STRENGTH - easy to access
| WEAKNESS - may not meet the researchers aim
136
elaborate strength of secondary data (easy to access)
Easy to access
Time taken to develop and carry out the research is not needed
This means the research involves little effort and little expense
137
elaborate weakness of secondary data (may not meet the researchers aim)
May not meet the researchers aim
For example, the data may originate from out of data or poorly designed studies
This may reduce the validity of the research
138
define normal distribution
A symmetrical spread of data that forms a bell shaped curve
Mean, mode and median are all at the same point
