LTC (2022) complete

Question 1

aim of Von Frisch’s bee study

Answer 1

To describe bee dances and explain how they are used

Question 2

method of Von Frisch’s bee study

Answer 2

Frisch was an ethologist so mainly observed bees but also did some experiments

He put a food source close to the hive (10-20 metres away) as well as one further away (up to 300m)
He made over 6000 observations of honey bees over 20 years

Question 3

results of Von Frisch’s bee study

Answer 3

Bees did two types of dance: round and waggle

Round dance if food was less than 100m away, returning bee would move around in a circle

Waggle dance - bee would move in a figure of eight and on the straight middle part the bee wags its abdomen
The direction of the straight part tells other bees its direction

The slower the dance the further away the food

Question 4

conclusion of Von Frisch’s bee study

Answer 4

Bees use a sophisticated form of animal communication and the bee dance has evolutionary value

Question 5

give 3 evaluation points of Von Frisch’s bee study

Answer 5

STRENGTH - made an important contribution to science
WEAKNESS - importance of sound was overlooked
WEAKNESS - bees don’t always respond to the waggle dance

Question 6

elaborate strength of Von Frisch’s bee study (made an important contribution to science)

Answer 6

Made an important contribution to science
People knew bees danced but not why
This shows his work was important to ethology and science

Question 7

elaborate weakness of Von Frisch’s bee study (importance of sound was overlooked)

Answer 7

Importance of sound was overlooked
Esch found that when bees performed the dance in silence other bees would not go to the food
Showing Frisch did not consider all communication signals

Question 8

elaborate weakness of Von Frisch’s bee study (bees don’t always respond to the waggle dance)

Answer 8

Bees don’t always respond to the waggle dance
Bees don’t respond when nectar is placed in the middle of a lake
This shows that there may be other factors affecting a bee’s response to the waggle dance

Question 9

what are the 4 functions of animal communication?

Answer 9

Survival
Territory
Reproduction
Food

Question 10

define communciation

Answer 10

The transfer of information from one or more animals to one or more other animals

Question 11

explain survival as a function of animal communication

Answer 11

Communication can be used to increase survival of the offspring

Velvet monkeys use alarm calls to warn each other of predators

Rabbits use non vocal displays to communicate, tail high + ears back

Question 12

explain territory as a function of animal communication

Answer 12

Many animals mark territory by scent marking
spreading urine, faeces or other natural scents to discourage animals from invading territory

White rhinos lay dung in piles to scent mark

Question 13

explain reproduction as a function of animal communication

Answer 13

Mating displays are used to signal to mates that a animals wants to reproduce, they communicate genetic fitness

Male peacocks stretch out their plumage to show colours to females, brighter = healthier

Question 14

explain food as a function of animal communication

Answer 14

Animals use signals to communicate food locations
e:g bee dance

Some animals use pheromones
Ants leave pheromone trails from colony to food source

Question 15

define displacement

Answer 15

The idea that human language enables the discussion of things that aren’t present or exist

Question 16

give 3 properties of human communication not present in animal communication

Answer 16

Planning ahead and discussing future events
Creativity in terms of open and closed systems
Single versus multiple channels

Question 17

explain planning ahead and discussing future events as a property of human communication and not animal communication

Answer 17

Humans can use language to discuss future events and plan ahead
Animals tend to focus on things in the present, they have no displacement

Question 18

explain creativity as a property of human communication and not animal communication

Answer 18

Human language is an open system
Words can be combined in completely new ways
This means humans can create an infinite number of sentences

Animal communication is a closed system as gestures, sounds and movements only refer to specific events

Question 19

explain single vs multiple channels as a property of human communication and not animal communication

Answer 19

Human language is multiple channels as it can be expressed in many different ways
Animal language can only be expressed in one way so single channel

Question 20

define verbal communication

Answer 20

The passing of information to another person using verbal or written words

Question 21

define non verbal communication

Answer 21

All communication not involving spoken or written words such as body language, facial expressions or eye contact

Question 22

define eye contact

Answer 22

When two people look at eachothers eyes at the same time

Question 23

what are the 3 roles of eye contact in non verbal communication?

Answer 23

Regulating flow of conversation
Signalling attraction
Expressing emotion

Question 24

explain the role of eye contact in regulating flow of conversation

Answer 24

Kendon found that speakers looked away when about to talk and gave prolonged eye contact when about to finish
Eye contact encourages turn taking in conversation

Question 25

explain the role of eye contact in signalling attraction

Answer 25

Conway found that people who use eye contact are judged as more attractive even with a negative facial expression

Question 26

explain the role of eye contact in expressing emotion

Answer 26

Adams and Kleck found that emotions of joy and anger were more intensely perceived when someone was gazing directly at them Fear and sadness more intense when gaze was averted

Question 27

give 3 evaluation points of eye contact studies

Answer 27

STRENGTH - studies can explain autism WEAKNESS - use of liker scales WEAKNESS - artificial tasks were used

Question 28

elaborate strength of eye contact studies (studies can explain autism)

Answer 28

Studies can explain autism Autistic people often have difficulty communicating with others because they don't use eye contact Knowing the importance of eye contact means people with autism can be taught these skills

Question 29

elaborate weakness of eye contact studies (use of liker scales)

Answer 29

Use of liker scales Studies in this area rely on people rating their views which are open to bias and interpretation This suggests studies into eye contact give biased evidence

Question 30

elaborate weakness of eye contact studies (artificial tasks were used)

Answer 30

Artificial tasks were used Kendon asked participants to get to know someone as part of the study This means the results lack validity as they don't reflect everyday life

Question 31

define body language

Answer 31

The way in which attitudes and feelings are communicated through unspoken movements and gestures

Question 32

what is open posture?

Answer 32

Opening your arms and legs, communicates approval and acceptance

Question 33

what is closed posture?

Answer 33

Closing your arms an legs, communicates rejection and disapproval

Question 34

what are 3 examples of body language?

Answer 34

Open/closed posture Postural echo Touch

Question 35

explain the role of open and closed posture

Answer 35

McGinley et al found that participants were more likely to agree with a confederate if they had a open posture during discussion than a closed one

Question 36

explain the role of postural echo

Answer 36

Postural echo - copying someone's body position Tamer and Chartrand found that participants had more positive feelings towards a new drink if the researcher used postural echo in the interview

Question 37

explain the role of touch

Answer 37

Touching includes high fives, slapping and putting hand on shoulder Fisher et al found that students handed books by a librarian who touched them were more positive about the librarian than those who weren't touched

Question 38

give 3 evaluation points of body language studies

Answer 38

STRENGTH - can be applied to the real world WEAKNESS - studies aren't well controlled WEAKNESS - research raises ethical issues

Question 39

elaborate strength of body language studies (can be applied to the real world)

Answer 39

Can be applied to the real world People who are trying to develop a good relationship with others should use an open posture, postural echo and touch This research can use be useful in real life

Question 40

elaborate weakness of body language studies (studies aren't well controlled)

Answer 40

Studies aren't well controlled In Fisher et al's library study, participants may have liked the librarian for unrelated reasons This reduces the validity of the results

Question 41

elaborate weakness of body language studies (research raises ethical issues)

Answer 41

Research raises ethical issues Field experiments on postural echo and touch involve a lack of informed consent and it is unclear whether or not participants were debriefed This could affect the trust people have in psychologists

Question 42

define personal space

Answer 42

An invisible and portable bubble that surround each individual The size of the bubble depends on what situation we are in and who we are with We feel uncomfortable when it is invaded and move away

Question 43

what are 3 factors affecting personal space preferences?

Answer 43

Culture Gender Status

Question 44

explain cultural differences in personal space

Answer 44

Sommer found that English people's personal space was 1 - 1.5m whereas Arabs is much less Englishmen who stood closer were better liked by Arabs

Question 45

explain gender differences in personal space

Answer 45

Men prefer a larger social distance when interacting with men than women with women Fisher and Byrne found that women felt more uncomfortable when a confederate invaded their personal space from the side - men felt uncomfortable when approached from the front

Question 46

explain status differences in personal space

Answer 46

Status - someone's rank within a society or workplace Zahn found that people with a similar status maintain a closer personal space

Question 47

give 3 evaluation points of personal space studies

Answer 47

STRENGTH - this research has proved useful in everyday life WEAKNESS - research into personal space only looks at one factor at a time WEAKNESS - studies may use unrepresentative samples

Question 48

elaborate strength of personal space studies (this research has proved useful in everyday life)

Answer 48

This research has proved useful in everyday life Doctors use knowledge about cultural differences in personal space Therefore it has a positive impact on the real world

Question 49

elaborate weakness of personal space studies (research into personal space only looks at one factor at a time)

Answer 49

Research into personal space only looks at one factor at a time In reality several factors determine personal space at one time This makes research in this area too simplistic

Question 50

elaborate weakness of personal space studies (studies may use unrepresentative samples)

Answer 50

Studies may use unrepresentative samples It is difficult to use a sample of all a culture or gender This means results can't be generalised easily

Question 51

describe the 4 main points of Darwin's evolutionary theory of NVB

Answer 51

Theory of natural selection - genes for beneficial behaviour are more likely to be passed on to the next generation non-verbal behaviour is evolved and adaptive - non verbal behaviour has evolved as a way of expressing emotion for example baring teeth in a fight causes animals to get scared and leave so there is no fighting and the animals are more likely to survive - the behaviour is therefore adaptive comparison with human behaviour - opening your eyes wide indicated surprise because it has developed from animal behaviour where animals open eyes wide to see an escape route and avoid danger serviceable habits - behaviours that were adaptive to our ancient ancestors such as wrinkling the nose and baring teeth continue to be in use to show how we feel but may not serve the original adaptive purpose

Question 52

define adaptive

Answer 52

Any physical or psychological characteristic that enhances the survival and reproduction of a species

Question 53

give 3 evaluation points of Darwin's evolutionary theory

Answer 53

STRENGTH - supported by research into facial expressions STRENGTH - supported by research with newborns WEAKNESS - struggles to explain cultural differences in non-verbal communication

Question 54

elaborate strength of Darwin's evolutionary theory of NVB (supported by research into facial expressions)

Answer 54

Supported by research into facial expressions Ekman et al identified that all people have six primary emotions If a behaviour is universal then it is in our genes supporting Darwin's theory

Question 55

elaborate strength of Darwin's evolutionary theory of NVB (supported by research with newborns)

Answer 55

Supported by research with newborns Babies are born with the ability to smile and maintain eye contact which suggests their innate If the behaviours are innate then they have naturally selected to help with survival

Question 56

elaborate weakness of Darwin's evolutionary theory of NVB (struggles to explain cultural differences in NVC)

Answer 56

Struggles to explain cultural differences in non-verbal communication Personal space is expressed in different ways across different cultures suggesting we are not biologically the same This shows the theory doesn't explain all non verbal communication

Question 57

define innate

Answer 57

Inborn, a product of genes

Question 58

define sensory deprived

Answer 58

An animal or human without a particular sensory ability

Question 59

provide evidence for non verbal behaviour being innate

Answer 59

If a non verbal behaviour is shown at birth it is likely to be innate Social releasers are NVB's such as smiling that encourage someone to look after a baby, this is an adaptive trait Young babies can also show disgust with lemons This suggests facial expressions are innate If a sensory deprived animal shows the same behaviours as a non deprived animal behaviors are innate

Question 60

provide evidence for non verbal behaviour being learned

Answer 60

Personal space is different across cultures. People from contact cultures are comfortable with smaller personal space and vice versa Pointing a finger is acceptable in Western culture to emphasise speech but offensive in Hindu culture, where people point with thumb Social learning theory can explain cultural differences People observe behaviours and copy them

Question 61

aim of Yuki's study of emoticons

Answer 61

To investigate if there is a difference in the way facial expressions are perceived across cultures using emoticons

Question 62

method of Yuki's study of emoticons

Answer 62

Independent groups design 95 Japanese students, 118 American students Each shown six emoticons with different combinations of eyes and mouths (sad, neutral or happy) and asked to rate happiness on a 9 point scale

Question 63

results of Yuki's study of emoticons

Answer 63

Japanese students gave higher ratings to faces with happy eyes but sad mouths American students gave higher ratings to faces with sad eyes but happy mouths

Question 64

conclusion of Yuki's study of emoticons

Answer 64

Cultural groups interpret facial expressions differently because of norms and expectations

Question 65

give 3 evaluation points of Yuki's study of emoticons

Answer 65

WEAKNESS - the study only investigated two types of emotion WEAKNESS - used liker scales WEAKNESS - emoticons do not represent human faces

Question 66

elaborate weakness of Yuki's study of emoticons (only investigated two types of emotion)

Answer 66

The study only investigated two types of emotion In everyday life, faces are used to express a wide range of emotions not just happiness or sadness Therefore the study does not provide an full insight into how facial expressions are used across cultures

Question 67

elaborate weakness of Yuki's study of emoticons (used liker scales)

Answer 67

Used liker scales Emotions are highly complex and liker scales reduce emotions down to a single score Therefore Yuki may have measured emotions too simply

Question 68

elaborate weakness of Yuki's study of emoticons (emoticons do not represent human faces)

Answer 68

Emoticons do not fully represent human faces Emoticons used may not have included tell tale lines on people's faces which help us to interpret their eyes and mouth This means the results may lack relevance to real life