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Research methods C Flashcards

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1
Q

Types of rationale (4)

A

From previous researches methodological problems
Considering different theories to explain past research
Replication
Unique theory based on general observations

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2
Q

Types of design (3)

A

Simple comparisons - one IV, two conditions

One way designs - one IV, three or more conditions

Factorial designs - more than one IV, multiple simultaneous experiments

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3
Q

Example of factorial design

A

Effect of rain (IV 1) and wind (IV 2) on perceived pleasantness (DV)

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4
Q

How many interactions and conditions are there with two factors

A

One interactions and 4 conditions

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5
Q

How many interactions are there with 3 factors

A

4 interactions, one being all of them together

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6
Q

What does an ANOVA do

A

Is an analysis of the variance (SD^2), it determines if two or more groups are from the same population of scores

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7
Q

What do ANOVAs compare… and if they are similar?

A

The within group error variance to the between group error variance
… if they are similar then the groups are from the same population

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8
Q

When might ANOVAs be significant

A

If the between group variance is substantially larger than the within group variance

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9
Q

Why do within group designs tend to be more sensitive to ANOVAs than between group designs

A

Has smaller error variance so more likely for the between group variance (caused by IV) to be significantly larger than within group variance
(assuming minimal carry-over effects)

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10
Q

Sources of variance (2)

A

Error - different people producing different scores

Effect of variables / different conditions

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11
Q

F-ratio =…

A

Between group variance / within group variance

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12
Q

General rule for F-ratios showing significance

A

If they Re greater than 1, most likely significant

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13
Q

How to read F-ratios

A

The larger the more significantly the between group variance is larger than the within group variance

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14
Q

What a significant ANOVA tells us and what it doesnt

A

At least one group is significantly different from at least one other

Doesn’t tell us which groups

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15
Q

How to determine which groups significantly differ after a significant ANOVA

A

Comparing means And SDs indicates which ones

But post-hoc comparisons to find simple effects does so statistically

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16
Q

Problem with post-hoc comparisons

A

Familywise error rates

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17
Q

How to carry out post hoc comparisons

A

Use the appropriate t-test to compare each separate pairs of conditions

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18
Q

Type 1 error

A

Concluded significant when it is not

Went to find wolf but there wasn’t one

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19
Q

Type II error

A

Conclude no significance when there is

Didn’t go to wolf but there was

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20
Q

Explain family wise errors

A

Chance of type I errors = p, if comparing 3 groups then 3 comparisons needed… what would usually be 1/20 (.05) is now 3/20 (.15), meaning significance threshold too high

P =.25 threshold if 5 comparisons (**though threshold would still say .05!!)

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21
Q

How to avoid family wise errors

A

Use bonferroni correction - divide .05 by number of comparisons to make new criterion for significance

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22
Q

parametric assumptions (3)

A

normally distributed
Homogeneity of variance
Interval or ratio data

If one is not met, a non parametric test is needed

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23
Q

Limitations of non parametric tests (2)

A

Provide limited information (no means or variance)

Greater chance of type II errors as less sensitive

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24
Q

How to report non parametric tests (3)

A 
State that (and how) assumptions for parametric tests were violated
Report medians and range information (maybe IQR)
Report test statistics
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25
Q

How to rank data

A

Order scores and number them in size order. If more than one of the same number, calculate their mean rank

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26
Q

Non parametric equivalent to a one way independent ANOVA

A

Kruskal-Wallis test

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27
Q

Features of Kruskal-Wallis test (4)

A

Uses independent groups
Compares 3 or more groups (different participants each group)
Sample sizes do not have to be equal
Uses ranked data

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28
Q

How Kruskal-Wallis test works

A

Rank all scores across all groups
Determine if rank for one condition is systematically higher or lower than another condition
If so, then a real difference. If non significant then ranks from each sample will be mingled together

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29
Q

How to do a post-hoc comparison after a significant Kruskal-Wallis test

A

Do a Mann-Whitney U test (non parametric equivalent to independent t-test), using a Bonferroni correction

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30
Q

Non parametric equivalent to a one way repeated measures ANOVA

A

Friedman’s test

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31
Q

Features of Friedmans test (3)

A

Compares 3 or more related conditions
Uses rank differences
Uses repeated measures design (same participants for each condition)

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32
Q

Hypothesis for Friedman’s test

A

Ranks of differences between a pair of conditions are systematically higher / lower than the ranks of differences between another pair of conditions

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33
Q

How to do a post-hoc comparison after a significant Friedman’s test

A

Conduct a Wilcoxon test (non parametric equivalent of a repeated measures t-test) on each pair of conditions, using a bonferroni correction

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34
Q

What is a mixed ANOVA?

A

At least one factor is within-participants and one factor between participants

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35
Q

Example of a mixed ANOVA

A

Two groups in different conditions (e.g. self compassion and control intervention), being tested before and after intervention.

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36
Q

How many independent variables can an ANOVA have?

A

One

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37
Q

What is levels of treatment

A

Number of groups in one factor

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38
Q

How many 1) factors 2) levels of treatment and 3) conditions does a 2 x 3 ANOVA have?

A

1) 2
2) 2 and 3
3) 6

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39
Q

Sources of variance in a two factor ANOVA (4)

A

Error variance
Main effect 1
Main effect 2
Interaction of factors

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40
Q

How does it get exponentially more complicated with studies with more factors

A

Number of interactions increases exponentially

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41
Q

Number of interactions in ANOVA = …

A

2^k - k - 1

k = number of factors

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42
Q

How to determine interactions from a graph

A

If the lines of factors are parallel then there is no interaction. The less parallel, the greater the interaction. Though significance of interactions cannot be determined by eye

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43
Q

What is an interaction

A

Variation in scores not due to error variance or the main effects

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44
Q

How many 1) main effects, 2) interactions and 3) sources of variance does a 2 x 2 x 4 ANOVA have?

A

1) 3
2) 4
3) 8

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45
Q

What is a simple effect

A

Difference between two conditions of one factor in a single condition of the other factor

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46
Q

Example of a simple effect in ANOVA (laptop vs hand written) x (review vs no review of notes)

A

With participant reviewing notes, the laptop was significantly less effective than hand written

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47
Q

Maximum number of simple effects in a 2 x 2 ANOVA

A

4

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48
Q

What to consider regarding research ethics? (4)

A

Provide consent form
Confidentiality / Anonymity
Stress optional, no pressure to participate
Debrief before or after study

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49
Q

Underlying assumptions of qualitative research

A

Descriptions / interpretations that move away from the realism / objectivity of quantitative, focusing on experience and subjectivity

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50
Q

Theoretical approach (generally) of qualitative research

A

An inductive approach whereby theories are shaped after the data is looked at, rather than having preconceptions

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51
Q

Explain how qualitative research has high reflexivity

A

Researchers interpretations is more embedded into the outcome of results

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52
Q

Characteristics of qualitative research (4)

A

High realism (naturalistic setting)
Low reliability
Loose structure
High reflexivity

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53
Q

Ontology

A

Theories about the nature of reality

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54
Q

Epistemology

A

Theories about the nature of knowledge

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55
Q

Types of qualitative researcher (3)

A

Miner (digs for information)
Traveler (observing and following information)
Gardener (?)

56
Q

Ontological assumptions that can underpin research (3)

A

Realism, critical realism and reletivism

57
Q

Epistemological assumptions that can underpin research

A

Positivism (objective, measurable, inert)
Social constructionism (culture shapes reality, knowledge is active)
Contextualism (social world has valuable knowledge in a critical realist reality)

58
Q

Reflexivity in research

A

How researchers involvement i the study influences and informs it

59
Q

Methods for being reflexive in qualitative research (3)

A

Diaries, memos, supervisory discussions etc

60
Q

Describe interviews

A

Contrived conversations with a purpose

61
Q

Types of interview (4)

A 
Structured (strict Q and A)
Semi-structured (some flexibility)
Loosely structured (largely flexible, with some aim)
Unstructured (does not exist)
62
Q

Features of a good interview question (4)

A

Not leading / influencing the answer
Encourages long, elaborated answers
Not ambiguous
Cross-checked with others and piloted

63
Q

Ethical consideration when conducting qualitative research online

A

Some websites do not allow research involvement in their terms and conditions

64
Q

How to be sensitive in qualitative research (3)

A

Do not make participant uncomfortable or offend them
Use distress protocols to respond well
Maintain boundaries of researcher and participant

65
Q

How to be sensitive when reporting qualitative research (2)

A

Consider whether participants would / wound not benefit from seeing report
Consider social / political impact of report before submitting

66
Q

Methods of transcription (2)

A

Post-modern - real words, no correction, include pauses.

Jeffersonian - textual devices of how speech is said

67
Q

Reliability

A

The accuracy of replication / repetition of a study… consistency of results

68
Q

How can reliability be reduced

A

Differing interpretations between researchers

69
Q

Validity

A

It measures what it intends to

70
Q

How can validity be reduced

A

Differing cultural interpretations

Lack of standardized questions

71
Q

Generalisability

A

Applications to other contexts

72
Q

How does quantitative research reduce generalisability

A

Focus on detail and controlling all variables

73
Q

Measures of quality in quantitative research (3)

A

Reliability
Validity
Generalisability

74
Q

Measures of quality in qualitative research (4)

A

Sensitivity
Commitment and rigor
Transparency
Impact

75
Q

Examples of sensitivity in qualitative research (3)

A

Inductive approach
Considering participant and cultural perspectives
Sensitive to ethical issues

76
Q

Commitment and rigor in qualitative research

A

Faithfulness in participants provided information, methodological competence

77
Q

Transparency in qualitative research and how to achieve it

A

Documenting and demonstrating the path to interpretation

Use an audit trail outlining process in detail, explaining rationality

78
Q

Types of impact of qualitative research (3)

A

Inform current practices
Advance theoretical approaches
Used for political benefit

79
Q

Focus groups

A

Individuals (best from 3-6) discuss a topic so researchers further understand their knowledge / viewpoints

80
Q

Advantages of focus groups (2)

A

Sensitive to points of consensus and disparity on the topic

Ideas are developed from listening to others

81
Q

Limitations of focus groups (4)

A

Recruitment can be difficult, finding a time everyone is free
Interactions hard to guide, easily side-tracked
Extroverts can dominate, losing introvert perspective
Groups must share similarities

82
Q

How to better guide focus group interactions, and benefits of doing so (3)

A

Prompt methods - use activities (such as videos or hypotheticals) as a catalyst for discussion, makes it less personal / more indirect and participant led

83
Q

Story completion

A

Projective text where participants complete a story stem

84
Q

Benefits of story completion tasks (3)

A

Useful for socially sensitive and ambiguous issues as can express views indirectly
Explore a range of assumptions at once
Sharing views implicitly means participants’ lack of introspective awareness can be overcome

85
Q

Qualitative surveys

A

Predetermined yet open-ended questions given to participant for written answers

86
Q

Benefits of qualitative surveys (4)

A

Less reliant on researchers skills
Participants can feel more freedom in response
Often easier to articulate in written form
Suites broad and specific topics of interest

87
Q

Solicited diaries and example of use

A

Diary writing for researchers with predefined guidelines, e.g. for food consumption

88
Q

Benefit and limitation of solicited diaries

A

Can be more stringent than other methods

Participants may not fill it out as asked, can lie… however technology makes lying and forgetting harder

89
Q

Features of media data qualitative analysis

A

Ubiquitous, easily accessible
Highlights reoccurring messages in culture
Taps into our mediated lives
A focus on sampling strategy and justifications

90
Q

Disadvantage of media data qualitative analysis

A

Cannot dig further than content displayed… unless on a forum

91
Q

Thematic analysis

A

Process of identifying meaningful patterns in data

92
Q

Benefits of thematic analysis (4)

A

Good for novice qualitative researchers, giving breadth
Researcher actively involved in generation of themes
Flexible in method, topic, theoretical approach, interpretation etc
Can disseminate to general population

93
Q

Inductive analysis

A

Themes generated without predefining a research question, coding focusing on anything ‘noteworthy’

94
Q

Deductive analysis

A

Themes relate to predefined theoretical positions, organizing data into patterns, coding with a focus of finding examples related to the theory / question

95
Q

Theme

A

Recurrent idea / statement that generate a pattern that adds meaning to experience… these are actively constructed by researcher

96
Q

Stages of thematic analysis (5)

A

Familiarization with the data, highlighting items
Initial coding, summarizing noteworthy items
Developing themes from the codes
Reviewing themes and organizing them into a model
Presenting results

97
Q

Disadvantages of thematic analysis (4)

A

Often just focuses on the obvious
Difficult to identify inconsistencies in data
Ignores tone of voice and the non-verbal
Can be time intensive

98
Q

Personal reflexivity

A

Researchers influence on research from own interpretation and dissemination (etc)

99
Q

Epistemological reflexivity

A

Influence of researcher’s assumptions about the nature of knowledge

100
Q

Critical language awareness (reflexivity)

A

Awareness of the power of words to carry a certain view / assumption… researcher must make all of this intentional

101
Q

What method and analysis (2) to use when gathering experiential information

A

Use interviews

Analyse with IPA and TA

102
Q

What method (3) and analysis (2) to use when gathering understanding and perceptions information

A

Use focus groups, interviews and online data

Analyse with TA and ground theory

103
Q

What method (3) and analysis (3) to use when gathering information about peoples’ practices

A

Use interviews, focus groups and online data

Analyse with TA, ground theory and DA

104
Q

What method (4) and analysis (2) to use when gathering information about influencing factors

A

Use interviews, focus groups, surveys, diaries

Analyse with TA, ground theory

105
Q

What method (2) and analysis (2) to use when gathering information about how people are represented

A

Use media and online sources

Analyse with TA and pattern-based DA

106
Q

What method (3) and analysis (2) to use when gathering information about how people construct something

A

Use focus groups, interviews and online data

Analyse with TA and pattern-based DA

107
Q

What method (3) and analysis (2) to use when gathering information about peoples’ language practices

A

Naturalistic data, interviews and focus groups

Analyse with discursive psychology and conversation analysis

108
Q

What method and analysis to use when gathering information about stories

A

Use interviews

Analyse with narrative analysis

109
Q

Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) features (6)

A 
Inductive approach
Open-ended questions to participants
Dynamic interpretive endeavour
Analyses in depth, creating thick data
Uses small, purpose samples 
Investigates meaning of participant's experience
110
Q

Underlying assumptions of Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) (2)

A

Experience is an existential import, based on idea that humans are constantly searching for meaning
Assumes agency of individual

111
Q

Elements of Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) (3)

A

Phenomenology - examining life experience
Symbolic interactionism - the self emerges from the meaning of social interaction
Hermeneutics - interpretation of experiences / messages

112
Q

Double hermaneutics

A

1) participants interpret their experience

2) researchers try to understand and interpret it

113
Q

How IPA differs from most of psychology

A

Most are nomothetic, meaning making claims at a group level
IPA is idiographic, meaning it interprets phenomenon comprehension by a particular people / individual… more value to personal experience

114
Q

Sampling process for IPA

A

Use a small sample, and consider richness of data to determine if more participants are needed… though time for analysis and availability of sample are also considered

115
Q

Potential data collection methods for IPA (4)

A 
Semi structured interviews (usually best)
Email exchange
Postal questionnaires 
Online forums (Q/A essential)
116
Q

Thematic analysis differences compared to IPA (3)

A

Used across epistemological and ontological spectrum
More flexible in every regard
Larger sample used for TA (breadth), as not idiographic

117
Q

Differences in IPA methodology compacted to TA (3)

A

Initial noting is between TA’s data familiarisation and coding
Coding, after noting, is done idiographically
Generally more themes, akin to sub themes in TA, as value of each experience is increased

118
Q

Example of both TA and IPA being used in same study

A

Interviews about depression, use TA for the whole set (breadth) and IPA for those who have experienced depression for over 10 years (depth)

119
Q

Limitations of IPA (4)

A

Over reliance on language, non-verbal unaccounted for
Inability of participants to articulate experience (double hermeneutics)
Not always interpretive / reflexive… poor research skills
Maybe not phenomenological enough

120
Q

Discourses and examples (2)

A

Inter-related sets of text that bring an object into being (pockets of knowledge)

E.g.) dissemination, reception

121
Q

Discourse analysis

A

Systematic study of texts to ascertain the constructive effects of discourse

122
Q

How do discourses possess meaning

A

Through connection with other texts, no meaning without context… meaning ascribed by analyser

123
Q

Features of discourse analysis (4)

A

Social constructionist view of social world
Reflexivity particularly essential (increased researcher role)
Goes beyond data, relating it to a theory
A linguistic approach, seeing how choice of words constructs the social object

124
Q

Assumptions underlying discourse analysis (2)

A

Language is purposeful, having an impact on reality, e.g. The law is not impartial due to language choice

People use discursive practices, an identifiable choice of words that construct a certain social object

125
Q

What ‘social object’ means for discourse analysis

A

Choice if description and associations that implicitly creates social idea… though this is fluid and ever changing

126
Q

Identifying linguistic features in discourse analysis and example

A

Focus on grammatical and pragmatic features

E.g. In politics, change verbs into nouns for powerful ascertains

127
Q

Interpretive repertoires (discourse analysis) and example

A

Used to construct alternative, often contradictory versions of events in different contexts

E.g. In public, scientists speak empirically but in private they describe facts as more fluid

128
Q

Discursive psychology

A

DA considered too contrived, this is in a more naturalistic setting. How discursive resources are used to achieve social objectives

129
Q

Foucauldian discourse analysis

A

Investigates what kind of objects are constructed and its implications to subjectivity, selfhood and power relations

130
Q

Data sources that we can use DA

A

Almost any, including diaries, speeches, posters, interviews… as long as there is discourse

131
Q

Limitations of discourse analysis (2)

A

Embedded in social constructionism ISO less flexible… more a feature than a limitation
Heavily reflexive, so easy for unskilled to conduct it poorly

132
Q

Spectre of subjectivity

A

Acknowledging interwoven role of researcher and socio-historical context in the research process
Subjectivity is accepted in qualitative research

133
Q

Are there such thing as emergent themes

A

No, though often assumed they spontaneously arise, they are actually generated by researchers interpretation

134
Q

Quasi-experimental method

A

Groups allocated based on naturally occurring phenomena, yet still has control conditions (half-experimental)

135
Q

When are post hoc tests unnecessary, and why

A

When a factor has two levels (2 x 2 ANOVA) since the only possible effect is between those two

Psychology (9 decks)

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