Learning Flashcards
Do well in exam
Define learning
A relatively permanent change in capacity for behaviour as the result of experience
Classical conditioning
The process by which innate, reflexive behaviour come to be produced in new situations, e.g. Pavlov’s dog
Operant conditioning
Strengthening or weakening behaviour as a result of its consequences (trial and error learning) - can be reward or punishment
Vicarious conditioning
Observable learning
The Grandmaster experiment
A psychologist raises his children on chess, who all become extremely successful professionals. This demonstrates learning’s (nurture’s) role in ability
Summary of history of nativism vs empiricism
Plato - knowledge present at birth (nativist)
Aristotle - knowledge through experience (empiricist)
Descartes - knowledge from divine / rational mind
Locke - knowledge through senses (empiricist)
Watson - evolution important and learning is simple stimulus and response
Hull… then Tolman… then Bandura… then Skinner
Watsons (1924) main ideas (3)
Behaviour is reflexive and evolution dependent
Learning is simple stimulus and response
Infants born with love, fear and rage (all else learnt)
Clark Hull’s main ideas (2)
Thought unobservable events CAN be studied (if they can be operationalised)
Assumed internal processes were dictated by physiological mechanisms
Edward Tolman’s main ideas (3)
Interested in goal directed behaviour
Internal processes were mental and physiological
Suggested that behaviour effects the environment
Albert Bandura’s main ideas (2)
Emphasises the importance of observable learning and cognitive variables in behaviour
And that behaviour significantly effects the environment
BF Skinner’s main ideas (3)
A radical behaviourist, focused on environment’s influence on behaviour
Did not need to quantify or focus on internal events, more scientific to quantify consequences
Great advocate for operant conditioning
Stimulus
Anything that impinges on an organism, potentially effecting behaviour
Response
Any overt or covert behaviour triggered by a stimulus
Elicit behaviours
Responses automatically drawn out by stimulus
Emitted behaviours
Responses voluntarily triggered by the environments context
Fixed action patterns
Usually just for animals, complex behaviours completed automatically
Overt
Behaviour that has the potential to be directly observed
Covert
Behaviour only perceived by the performer of it
How can covert behaviours become overt
By using a means other than the senses to observe someone else (covert anxiety becomes overt when heart rate measured)
Simple learning, and two types
Non associative, often short lasting
Types: Habituation, Sensitization
Habituation
The reduction in effectiveness of a stimulus eliciting a response (if stimulus is repeatedly applied with no attention grabbing effects)
Sensitization
An increase in responsiveness to a stimulus following repeated presentation (stimulus has attention grabbing effects)
Associative learning
Learning to associate two events/stimuli that occur together
Contiguity
Contiguity
The principle that events occur together (temporally or spatially) and therefore associated
Contingency
A predictive relationship between two events (similar to temporal contiguity - one predicting the other, e.g. Pavlov’s dog)
Deprivation and example
Prolonged absence of an event or stimulus that tends to increase appetitiveness (e.g. food)
Satiation and example
Prolonged exposure to or consumption of a stimulus that tends to decrease appetitiveness or increase aversiveness (e.g. electric shock)
Experiment on reward’s effect on learning
Tolman (1930) - found rats to make less errors in a maze if they had knowledge of a reward. Introducing the reward half way through saw rapid improvements
The Skinner Box
Rat cage containing various stimuli to test behaviour (e.g. light, speaker, shocker, lever)
Also said to be used on his daughter!
Example of classical conditioning
Pavlov’s dog: dog heard a bell before every time it was fed. After a while, the dog elicit saliva to just the sound of the bell (contingency behaviour)
Describe classical conditioning
An unconditioned stimulus causes an unconditioned response. Pair the unconditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus frequently and the unconditioned response will become a conditioned response to the now conditioned stimulus
How classical conditioning works with neurons
The US and UR have strong connection. When US paired with NS frequently, connecting neurons strengthen and CR and CS emerge
(Neurons that fire together wire together - stronger synapses)
Contiguous stimulus
That which co-occurs with another stimulus
Appetitive conditioning and examples
Types of learning that underlie our ability to see pleasure (food, drugs etc)
Aversive conditioning
Types of learning that underlie our ability to avoid pain (shock, unpleasant smell etc)
Evolutionary usefulness of classical conditioning and example
Associating something with something else (either pleasant or dangerous) to predict and adapt behaviour
E.g. - a lion’s roar with a lion = RUN
Suppression ratio define
How to quantify learning in classical conditioning through behaviour
Suppression ratio = …
.. = number of CS responses / number of CS responses + number of pre-CS responses
(Closer to 0 the more suppression, Max = 0.5)
Excitatory conditioning and example
Takes place when the US is present (Pavlov’s dog)
Inhibitory conditioning and example
Takes place when the US is absent (dog bites you only in owners absence, so seeing dog with owner is inhibitory
??
Temporal arrangement of stimuli
Interval between the onset of the CS and onset of US. The smaller the more effective the association
Maximum temperal arrangement of stimuli for (1) eye blink (2) Salvation (3) Taste aversion - being sick from food
1) 1 second
2) 5 seconds
3) 4 hours
Delayed conditioning
When NS onset precedes US onset
Trace conditioning
When offset of NS precedes onset of US
Simultaneous conditioning
NS and US onset at the same time
Backward conditioning
When onset of NS follows onset of US
Rank trace, backward, simultaneous and delayed conditioning for effectiveness
Delayed
Trace
Simultaneous
Backward
Characteristics of conditioning (6)
Acquisition speed Extinction Spontaneous recovery Disinhibition Stimulus Generalisation Stimulus Discrimunation
What does acquisition speed depend on for conditioning
The stronger the US and CS the faster the acquisition
Extinction in conditioning
The weakening of CR when the CS is repeatedly present without the US
Spontaneous recovery in conditioning
Reappearance of CR following a rest period after extinction (spontaneous!)
Disinhibition in conditioning
Recovery of CR during extinction when a novel (similar to CS) is introduced alongside US (e.g. different tone of bell for Pavlov’s dog)
??
Stimulus Generalisation in conditioning
Conditioning can occur from other stimuli similar to CS
Stimulus Discrimination in conditioning
Only responding to the specific CS, not generalising to similar ones
High order classical conditioning and example
conditioning a CS can result in the development of a CR to a NS that is already associated with CS
Wasp (CS) + Sting (US) = fear (CR), so rubbish bin (NS) + wasp = fear, thus rubbish bin = fear!
Sensory preconditioning and example
Classical conditioning of a CS can cause a CR to a NS that has been associated to the CS
Wasp + tree, Wasp + sting = fear, thus tree = fear
Difference between high order conditioning and sensory preconditioning
For sensory preconditioning, the tree and wasp are both NS’s at same time (the start). Whereas for high order, the rubbish bin only comes into it once the wasp is a CS
Latent learning
When learning occurs without an overt demonstration of learning (behaviour demonstrating comes under certain conditions)
Limitations of classical conditioning (3)
Overshadowing
Blocking
Latent inhibition
Overshadowing in classical conditioning and example
The more salient member of the conditioning compound, the more readily conditioned it is as a CS, interfering with the conditioning of the less salient one
E.g. - light more salient than faint metronome so becomes CS
Blocking in classical conditioning and example
Presence of already established CS interferes with conditioning of new stimulus
E.g. adding a light to Pavlov’s dog’s conditioning would be blocked by the well established bell
Latent inhibition in classical conditioning and example
An already familiar stimulus is more difficult to condition than an unfamiliar one
E.g. - trying to condition dog with a whistle (most likely hears regularly
Difference between blocking and overshadowing in classical conditioning
For blocking, the NS is paired with a CS
For overshadowing, two NS’s are paired together
Rescorla-Wagner Model
A US can only support a limited amount of conditioning (associations with NS’s), distributed amongst the ones available
(supported by blocking!)
What does V mean in terms of classical conditioning
Strength of association between CS and CR
e.g. - drops of saliva from Pavlov’s dog
Rescorla-Wagner rule
Learning occurs only if what happens does not match the organisms expectations (i.e. learning is proportional to surprise)
Change in association (for classical conditioning) = …
Vmax - V
Limitations of the Rescorla-Wagner rule (3)
May not account for… latent inhibition, sensory preconditioning and spontaneous recovery
Classical conditionings link with psychobiology
The R-W rule which accounts for learning translates into PE signals which fire in correlation to level of surprise
Operant conditioning examples (2)
Thorndike’s cat: hungry cat in puzzle box, food just outside. Can accidently escapes at first by hitting lever, and the food reward from doing so helps it learn in the future. Took a shorter amount of time to escape after every success
Or… a baby smiles to get attention increases its smiling in the future
How did Skinner categorise behaviour
As involuntary or operant, denying the existence of intentions
Primary and secondary positive reinforcers
Primary is food, drink, touch etc - biologically satisfying things Secondary is (e.g.) money - indirect to biological satisfaction
Premack principle and example
More probable or desirable activities will reinforce less probable or desirable activities
E.g. eating greens to get desert
Positive reinforcement and example
Administering an appetitive stimuli following the performance of a behaviour increases the likelihood of the behaviours repetition in the future
E.g. Giving rat some food after it presses lever
Negative reinforcement and example
Removing an aversive stimuli following the performance of a behaviour increases the likelihood of the behaviours repetition in the future
E.g. Removing unpleasant smell from rat after it presses lever
Positive punishment and example
Administration of an aversive stimuli following the performance of an undesired behaviour, decreasing the likelihood of the behaviours repetition in the future
E.g. Rat given electric shock when it presses lever
Negative punishment and example
Removal of an appetitive stimuli following the performance of an undesired behaviour, decreasing the likelihood of the behaviours repetition in the future
E.g. Rats access to food removed when it presses lever
What does 1) positive and 2) negative mean in the context of reinforcement and punishment
1) Delivering
2) Removing
Intrinsic reinforcement and example (3)
Behaviour performed for its on sake
E.g. play, listening to music, doing something ‘interesting’
Extrinsic reinforcement and example (2)
Behaviour performed for future external event
E.g. Studying, working for money
Example of natural reinforcer (2)
Food found from searching, compliment for good behaviour
Example of contrived reinforcer
Food for sitting still
Shaping in operant conditioning
Progressively teaching a behaviour to be done in specific terms through reinforcement or punishment of initially accidental behaviour
Chaining in operant conditioning and example
Teaching a whole sequence of behaviours through reinforcement
e.g. rat presses multiple levers for food
Central to Skinners explanation of complex behaviour
Generalisation in operant conditioning
Similar stimuli that has been associated with reward/punishment for a behaviour elicits that behaviour
Discrimination in operant conditioning
Subject discriminates between similar stimuli for reward/punishment and only responds to specific one
Secondary reinforcement in operant conditioning and example
Pairing a new stimuli with the old one (often concurrently via different senses) can make it a secondary reinforcer
E.g. clicker training in horses a secondary reinforcer for food
Constraints on learning (3)
Incompatible responses (e.g. grooming is difficult to increase with food reinforcement
Biological limits
Preparedness
Types of schedules for reinforcement (2) for operant conditioning
Ratio schedules - behaviour rewarded after certain number of responses
Interval schedules - behaviour rewarded after a certain time period, irrespective of responses
Types of ratio schedules (2) for operant conditioning
Fixed ratio - fixed number of responses before the reward is given (commission)
Variable ratio - number of required responses is variable for reward (most gambling processes)
Types of interval schedules (2) for operant conditioning and which is most motivating
Fixed interval - fixed amount of time passes before reward given (more motivating, goal directed)
Variable interval - variable amount of time passes before reward received
What type of schedule of reinforcement for operant conditioning is the most addicting / motivating
Variable ratio, as very goal directed - most gambling follows this schedule
Duration schedules for operant conditioning and example
Reinforcement contingent on continuously performing a behaviour for a period of time (animal stalking prey)
Response rate schedules for operant conditioning and example
Reinforcement contingent on rate of response (praising child for eating slowly)
Non contingent schedules for operant conditioning
Reinforcement given after a variable period of time, irrespective of the organisms response, this may account for superstitious behaviour
Superstitious behaviour
A response acquired as a result of its accidental contiguity with the reinforcer
Skinners study on superstitious behaviour
Rewarded pigeons every 20 seconds, observed they developed strange behaviours of repetition as they may have thought this was why they were receiving the reward
Factors influencing operant conditioning (4) and how
Contiguity - closer the behaviour and consequence the more effective
Effect - whether positive or negative
Practice - how much opportunity to rehearse and modify response
Motivation - the more it is the more effective learning
Drive reduction theory of reinforcement
An event is reinforcing to the extent it is associated with the reduction in a physiological drive
Counter to drive reduction theory of reinforcement
Some reinforcers do not reduce drives (e.g. music), especially in humans
Response deprivation hypothesis of reinforcement and example
Restricting appetitive activity increases motivation to ‘earn back’ what’s lost of activity
E.g. Running on treadmill for half the time as usual causes motivation to complete session
Bliss point approach of reinforcement
An organism with free access to alternative activities will distribute behaviour to maximise overall reinforcement
Extinction in operant conditioning
Previously reinforced behaviour done repeatedly without reward weakens the association with the stimulus
Side effects of extinction in operant conditioning (3)
Extinction burst - rush of increased behaviour to try and regain reward
Emotional behaviour, potential aggression
Depression, giving up
Resistance to extinction in operant conditioning depends on… (4)
Schedule of reinforcement
Magnitude of previous reinforcement
Degree of deprivation
Previous extinction experience
Effects of reinforcement schedules on speed of extinction
Continuous schedule - very fast Fixed interval - medium Fixed ratio - medium Variable interval - very slow Variable ratio - slow
Spontaneous recovery in operant conditioning
Reappearance of extinguished response from CS following a rest period after extinction
Difference between spontaneous recovery and relearning in operant conditioning
Spontaneous recovery is reintroduction of CS
Relearning is reintroduction of CS and US
DRO programmes and example
Differential Reinforcement of Other behavious
Extinguish one behaviour, reinforcing another
E.g. learning disability intervention
DRI programmes and example
Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible behaviour
Reinforce behaviour that is incompatible with the one trying to be extinguished E.g. treating anorexia, reinforcing eating incompatible with not eating
Escape behaviour and example
Performance of behaviour that terminates the aversive stimulus (running away)
Avoidance behaviour and example
Performance of behaviour that prevents an aversive stimulus (going inside before it rains)
Shuttle box
Used for rats in escape / avoidance experiments, it has two half - one of which the rat can escape from a shock in the other (a light is warning for the shock normally)
Two process theory of avoidance examples for classical and operant conditioning
For classical conditioning: 1) light+shock = fear then 2) light = fear
For operant conditioning: 1) light + shock causes run away = negatively reinforced then 2) light = run away
Problems of two process theory of avoidance (2)
Anxiety conservation hypothesis: avoidance extremely persistent, extinction difficult
After repeated trials, avoidance behaviour occurs without fear
?? why problems…
One process theory of avoidance
Rather than conditioned fear, avoidance is purley avoiding the shock- reinforced by lower levels of aversive stimulation (explains in terms of operant conditioning)
Rat moves to avoid shock, not reduce fear
Phobia
Intense (usually irrational) fear of a specific thing
Preparedness
Biological disposition to certain phobias
General Development rates of 1) animal phobias and 2) claustrophobia
1) 5 years
2) 20 years
Classical conditioning explanation of phobias and evidence
An aversive experience of stimuli brings strong association of aversion to it afterwards
38% of traffic accident survivors develop driving phobias
How are phobias suggested to be maintained (2)
Through operant conditioning
??
Deliberately avoiding the US and CS leaves no opportunity for extinction of the association
Other explanations for causes of phobias (4)
Neoconditioning, modelling, disgust, cognitive bias
Characteristics of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) (2)
Persistent thoughts, images or impulses (O)
Repetitive, stereotyped behaviours in response to obsessions (C)
How OCD is thought to be maintained
Due to avoidance conditioning removing the possibility for extinction. Avoidance caused as compulsions reduce the anxiety caused by obsessions
Theory for treating OCD
ERP -exposure response prevention
Expose patient to the counter of their obsession and prevent them completing their compulsion, causing extinction as awareness of irrationality grows
Evidence against conditioning causing OCD (3)
Few patients can pinpoint a triggering event
Evidence for genetic predispositions
Cognitive distortions and irrational beliefs common
Dissociative Identity Disorder characteristics
Avoidance of anxiety from memory of traumatic event by switching to another personality
Other name for Dissociative Identity Disorder
Multiple personality disorder
Cause and maintenance of Dissociative Identity Disorder
Caused by a traumatic event, maintained / consolidated as negatively reinforced by reduced anxiety when in other personality
What a socio-cognitive model suggests consolidates Dissociative Identity Disorder
From suggestive influence: shaped by social reinforcement and observable learning
??
Socio-cognitive theory
Social interaction affects us more than is typically believed, reducing importance of our own volitional control. Assumes people behave in accordance with social demands, but not full compliance
Evidence for socio-cognitive theory
When subjects played a tape of hypnotic suggestions, they comply with what the experimenter wants
Experiment on punishment conditioning in human
Severely self-harming boy electric shocked every time he self-harmed. Behaviour disappeared after 12 shocks
Determinants of effectiveness for punishment conditioning (4)
Intensity (the more the larger/longer-lasting the effects) Delay (the shorter the more effective) Consistency (the more the more effective) Stimulus control (training stimulus similar to real-life)
Side effects of punishment conditioning (5)
Fear and avoidance (often of experimenter)
Does not strengthen desired behaviour
Suggests punishment is good
Feeling of helplessness, lack of resistance in future
Could still do undesired behaviour in different contexts
Benefits of punishment conditioning (3)
Increases social behaviour (hopefully)
Improves mood by distracting from previous annoyance
Increases attention to the environment ?
Criticisms of behaviourism (2)
Complex behaviours difficult to explain by operant conditioning - for example language
Learning theory cannot explain observational learning convincingly
Observational learning
Improving performance on tasks by watching others and imitating (other people are CS). Can also be subliminal, being shaped by those you respect and advertising
Contagious behaviour and examples (2)
Instinctive, reflective behaviour triggered by others doing it (laugh, yawn etc)
Imitation and rat example
Duplicating a novel behaviour to achieve a specific goal - rats observe others to see what’s safe to eat
Vicarious conditioning and example
Learning through observing other’s response to a stimulus (e.g. fear reaction to spider if mother does same)
Vicarious operant conditioning
Learning through observing the consequence of another’s behaviour
Factors affecting observable learning (3)
Personal characteristics Contextual conditions (respect towards the observed) Performance (consequences of actions observed or success of imitation)
Case study of observable learning in children
Film of adult being aggressive towards doll increased aggression of children to doll. Aggression increased further if adult rewarded at end of video rather than punished (neutral group still showed aggression, demonstrating ‘no-trial learning’)
Evidence for language being explained by conditioning and counter
Basic sign can be taught to chimps fairly successfully, even examples of adaptability in this - equating a cat to a kitten in language
Counter: our language infinitely complex and no concrete proof the chimp understood meaning
Examples of where classical and operant conditioning are put to good use (5)
For phobias, prisons, in children, learning disabilities and psychiatric disorders
Example of counter classical conditioning
Child with rabbit phobia was fed cookies when the rabbit was at different distances until the rabbit was up close playing with the child - positively reinforced rabbit’s presence to counter conditioning
Counter-conditioning
A stimulus counters CR eliciting a new, incompatible CR (reciprocal inhibition)
How to treat problem behaviours (4)
Extinction of association
Counter-conditioning
Flooding treatment
Exposure therapies
Reciprocal inhibition
Evoking a new CR, incompatible with the old
Systematic desensitisation
Pairing of something relaxing with a succession of stimuli that increasingly elicit higher levels of fear (uses reciprocal inhibition)
Example for systematic desensitisation
Rat afraid of chamber to eat it. So put in a different one which gradually changes into the feared one - not in fear by the end. Fear changes to relaxed (incompatible, so reciprocal inhibition)
How to combat phobias that cannot be controlled in a clinic (e.g. thunder storms)
Still use counter conditioning / extinction but get the patient to visualise the phobia (building from a minor version to something major), pairing it with something that reduces anxiety
When systematic desensitisation may not work
When people suffer from social phobias
When people cannot visualise clearly
For people that visualising does not elicit anxiety
Flooding treatment for phobias
Prolonged exposure to feared stimulus , giving maximum opportunity for the phobia to extinguish
Theory behind flooding treatment for phobias
Fear cannot be maintained indefinitely, therefore habituation / extinction will occur and fear will decrease
Example of flooding treatment for phobias
Man stands on ledge on tall building until no longer afraid of heights
Problems of flooding treatment for phobias (3)
the stress induced may cause other issues
May not work for people with a history of psychiatric disorders
May take a long time if deep rooted fear
Exposure therapies for phobias
A flooding and systematic desensitisation hybrid, patients are exposed to fears gradually and controlled until habituated (often done with spiders)
Aversion therapy
Reduced attractiveness of undesired behaviour by associating it with an aversive stimulus
Example of aversion therapy
Give alcoholic Antabuse so they become nauseous when they consume alcohol (however extinction can be rapid once Antabuse not being taken)
When is aversion therapy not effective and example
When aversive stimulus is compatible with CR (e.g. electric shock and pleasure response from food)
How does behaviour depend on the type of schedule of reinforcement
The ratio of responses tends to match the ratio of reinforcers
When does the ratio of responses not match the ratio of reinforcers (3)
Undermatching when there is a small cost between switching between schedules
Overmatching when there is a large cost between switching between schedules
When there is a bias / preference
Why the ratio of responses tends to match the ratio of reinforcement (2)
Maximisation of reward
Melioration of reward: effort is allocated to the largest reward value
History of ethics in experimentation before the 20th century (4)
Hippocrates (400 BC) - do no harm
Bernard (1800’s) - must have a benefit
Osler (1800’s) - must have consent
Bernard-Shaw (1900’s) - human guinea pigs
20th century history of ethics in experimentation
Nazi’s evil practices (sterilisation, no regulation surgery)
Nuremburg code (1947) - 10 standards for physicians
Declaration of Helsinki (1964) - more specific, supporting human rights
Examples of famous questionable experiments (4)
Little Albert (1920) Willowbrock experiment (1956) Milgram experiment (1962) Stanford prison experiment (1971)
Summary of Stanford prison experiment 1971
Mock jail made with participants and guards and prisoners. Authority given to guards got so out of control, prisoners had break-downs and it had to be cancelled in 5 days
Summary of Milgram’s experiment 1962 and why it was thought unethical
Man in white coat told participant to give actor electric shock - 67% shocked the actor to death
Did damage to the patient who now knows they would shock a man to death
