Developmental Flashcards
Know everything
Difference between continuity and stability as developmental concepts
Continuity is the degree of consistency in group means, whereas stability is the degree of consistency in individual differences (stable being if their rank order in group stays the same over time)
Domain specific
Focus on a particular behavior, emphasizing things with a narrow effect
Domain general
Focus on a range of behaviors, emphasizing things with a broad effect
Empiricism and Nativism
Empiricism is the theory that development comes through experience, whereas nativism claims that development comes from genetics (is innate)
Pragmatism theory and example
Between empiricism and nativism, a child’s capacity for actions helps them adapt to objects and concepts, emphasizes cognitive development
Piaget’s constructionism is an example
Piaget’s constuctivism
Cognitive development (internalizing experience) is a progression through fixed stages and is necessary for learning… experience is filtered through natural schema, which is updated when challenged by experience (RW rule)… Children construct their understanding, are active in it
Socio-cultural theory
Development occurs due to interaction with more able individuals. Function changes are observed first then internalized
Zone of proximal development
Distance between actual development and the level of potential development
Explain false dichotomy of nature vs nurture
Genes exert influence on the environment yet the environment influences genetic expression (e.g. epigenetics)
Developmental systems theory (research more)
Emphasizes nature-nurture complexity, individuals interaction with the environment across time and individuals’ diversity and plasticity
Cross sectional research and limitations (3)
Conducted at a single time, describing the pattern of relationships
Not causal, nothing about an individuals development overtime and confounded by cohort effects
Longitudinal research
Measuring the same individual at more than one point in time (causal)
Types of longitudinal research (3)
Panel studies - one cohort studied overtime
Multiple cohort studies - staggered overtime
Intervention studies - manipulating the circumstances
Types of genetically sensitive research designs
Behavior genetics - focused on differences
Quantitative genetics - estimates genes / environments influence (e.g. twin studies etc)
Molecular genetics - grouping DNA variants with traits
Logic behind twin studies
Since Monozygotics share 100% DNA and Dizygotic 50%, if monozygotic twins score more similarly then the trait is more heritable
A, C and E in twin studies
A - Additive genetic effect (heritability estimate)
C - Common environment estimate
E - Non-shared environment estimate
Difference between heritable and innate
Heritability describes the proportion of individual’s variance than can be attributed to DNA
Innate describes human universals (2 eyes) that are only not the case due to the environment
Logic behind adoption studies
Can compare the adopted child to their parents and biological parents to see the impact of the environment
Describe habituation / dis-habituation toddler research
Present stimuli until uninterested, then change it. When the original stimuli returns, discrimination is apparent if the toddler reacts to it again
Describe anticipatory looking toddler research
Infants observe a predictable sequence. When repeated, their gaze is recorded to see if it anticipates
Describe violation of expectations toddler research
Shown events compatible with a principle. Looking times are measured when the principle is violated to see if the infant understands the principle
Piaget’s ideas on how children think
Children’s cognition (qualitatively different from adults) develops in a fixed, universal sequence - each part having a unique logic
Piaget’s stages of development (4)
Sensorimotor (0-2) - beings to act intentionally and differentiates oneself from objects Preoperational (2-7) - represents objects in mind, largely egocentric, classifies objects by single features Concrete operational (7-12) - logically reflects, understands measurements, classifies objects by several features Formal operational (12-...) - thinks abstractly and logically about hypothetical's and the future
Describe A not B test (for infants) and critisism
Object under container A until habituated, then moved to B in front of the infant. Under 6 months, infant doesn’t look under B.
This could be due to lack of concentration
Conservation and why errors in it occur (3)
Knowing something is the same when it’s appearance changes (water from tall glass to wide glass)
Errors occur due to ego-centrism, centration (fixation on one feature) and reversibility (inability to reverse events
Criticism of Piaget’s stages of development and evidence
Thought development was domain general, but it may be domain specific as children perform differently on tasks supposed to measure the same cognitive stage
Piaget claimed this was only temporary
Predictors of poor performance in A not B task (2)
Long delays before asking
More A trials before switching to B
Components of number cognition (2)
Abstraction (counting or estimating) - creating appropriate numerical representations
Reasoning (adding etc) - understanding the principles of numerical manipulation
Distance effect for numbers
The closer the numbers in question, the more errors
Subitizing
Enumerating without conscious counting (in reaction time tasks)
Piaget’s ideas on children understanding numbers (4)
Counting doesn't show understanding They have no innate number sense They do not understand until 7, needing conservation, class inclusion and seriation (ordering) It is a domain general process
Principles of counting (5)
One to one - each item tagged with number
Stable order - for tags, repeated the same
Cardinal - Final tag represents total
Abstraction - anything can be counted
Order irrelevance - tagging order doesn’t matter
First 3 claimed to be acquired in pre-operational (cardinal = last) but the other two for older children
Number sense hypothesis
Brain has an innate mechanism for numerical qualities, derived from evolutionary past
How the number sense improves with age
Experiments show 6 months olds to discriminate at a 2:1 ratio, 3 year olds at a 4:3 and adults at a 11:10
Genetic influence of maths (2)
School test results show it to be highly heritable
And domain general as it correlates with IQ and literacy
Environmental influence of maths (2) and critisism
Socio-economic background and mother’s education are strong predictors
However this could be a passive genetic indicator
Difference between reliability and validity
Reliability is if the measure yields the same results on repetition whereas validity is if the measure is measuring what it claims to
Psychometrics
Science of psychological assessment concerning individual differences
What is (5) and is not (2) measured in psychometric intelligence tests
Is: understanding, adaption, working memory, processing speed and problem solving
Is not: emotional intelligence, social ability
Single and multiple item intelligence tests and example of each
Single item ones measure one aspect of intelligence (Ravens progressive matrices test) and multiple item measures multiple (Wechsler’s test)
Factor analysis
Determines the latent variables (factors) that account for the variation amongst observed measures, accounting for errors / anomalies
Catell’s two factors of intelligence
Fluid - using no previous knowledge
Crystallised - using established store of knowledge
IQ test scores
Given a value based on where one is on a normal distribution for their age (mean = 100, SD = 15)
IQ definitions of (1) learning disability and (2) gifted person
1) 70 or below
2) 130 or above
(Both are 2 SD’s from mean)
Correlations with IQ scores
School results, socio-economic status and self-control
Heritability of IQ tests
Very high, MZ twins show the same correlation as individuals retesting themselves. However environmental influences are also established
Genes that determine intelligence intelligence
Seems to be polygenetic - individual genes having a small effect on intelligence so is down to combinations
The Flynn effect and implications
Evidence was found for substantial gains in fluid intelligence across generations in 5 countries - 30 point increase in a century
Shows the environments influence on intelligence
Theory of mind
Capacity to attribute mental states to others, enabling the predicting or explaining of their behaviour
Piaget’s ideas on theory of mind development (2)
Only egocentric interaction between children until after the pre-operational stage (age of 8)
Had a domain general view, seeing ToM and cognition development as inseparable
Describe the false belief identity task
Object enclosed in an unexpected package (pencils in a Smarties box). Ask children if their (e.g.) mother will know what is in the box. If they say pencils, shows the child has theory of mind
Describe false belief changing location task
Character A puts item in location. Character B then moves it without A’s knowledge. Ask child where A will look for item. If they say in original location, shows the child has theory of mind
Nativist account for theory of mind and a study that supports it
It is innate, domain specific skill
Box study: 15 month old found to look longer when the expectation of an object’s location was violated as the experimenter reaches to another location - indicating ToM in infants
Constructivist account for theory of mind
That stages of it develop and increase in sophistication, depending on interaction with the environment
Relationship between theory of mind and executive function
Highly correlated (false belief and EF task performance), both impaired in ASD children. EF is thought to come before ToM as control of personal thoughts should predate understanding of others thoughts.
Social constuctivist account for theory of mind and study that supports it
Conversations with others are primarily responsable for ToM development as they help us understand others views (trial and error learning)
Evidenced by study showing more discussion with parents about mental states means more ToM
Mind-mindedness
Proclivity to view others as individuals with their own mental states
What correlates with high theory of mind (3)
High mind-mindedness, larger families, higher socio-economic status
Piaget’s ideas on moral reasoning (4)
Children are moral realists, following rules inflexibly until age 12
They are focused on consequences rather than motives until around 9 years old (subjective responsibility)
They are keen on punishment (justice) for bad consequences
Is domain general, cognitive shortcomings causing slow development (e.g. ego-centrism)
Kohlberg’s moral reasoning dilemma
Husband cannot pay for a life saving drug for their wife so, after trying to raise the money, he steals it. Was he wrong?
Kohlberg’s moral reasoning categories (3)
Pre-conventional reasoning - avoid punishment, conform to power, ‘right’ actions satisfy oneself
Conventional reasoning - ‘right’ action pleases others, rules are fixed (to maintain order)
Post-conventional reasoning - ‘right’ is what is agreed upon, rules are flexible and principles abstract
Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning and support for it
It develops through stages that mirror Piaget’s cognitive stages of development
Longitudinal study found 94% of participants to adhere to this stage model
Evidence for an innate (nativist) moral sense and critisism
6 month old infants favored the helpful toy over the one that knocked it down the hill
However maybe crashing downwards is more aversive than an object moving upwards in a controlled way (re-run of experiment indicates this is true)
Social-interactionist view on moral reasoning
A predisposition for helping may be present at birth yet social experience (praise/observing) very influential
Bowlby’s theory of attachment
From research, he postulated that parental care was vital for strong mental health, maternal deprivation being particularly damaging. Said because of strong, innate affectionate bonds for contact and intimacy
Stages of early attachment (4)
Before 3 months - responds to others with limited discrimination
3-6 months - discriminates common figures (parents), greeting their return etc
9 months - 2 years - puts energy into maintaining proximity with them, clinging and crying etc
2-5 years - develops insight into their behavior, formulating an internal working model of their relationship
Bowlby’s predictions of attachment (3)
Feeling secure encourages exploration, fear encouraging attachment
Parenting quality influences mental health and personal relationships later in life
Sustained, responsive parenting needed for attachment
Describe the strange situation test
A stranger enters the room, talks to the mother then plays with the infant. The mother then leaves, re-enters. Then the stranger leaves, the mother leaves again (child alone). Then the stranger re-enters, then the mother and finally the stranger leaves. Child’s behavior is being measured and coded for attachment to mother
General findings in the strange situation test
A child’s exploration reduces and attachment increases when the mother leaves due to fear of mothers absence
Attachment status’ derived from the strange situation test (3) and their prevalence
Avoidant (A, 20%) - not distressed when separated and doesn’t greet parent
Secure (B, 70%) - sometimes distressed when separated and responds positively to reunion
Resistant (C, 10%) - consistent distress when separate, greets upon reunion and parent not effective in reducing stress
Ainsworth’s measures for parental sensitivity (4)
Awareness of child’s signals
Accuracy of interpretation of signals
Appropriateness of response to signals
Promptness of response
Temperament
Innate individual differences in reactivity / self-regulation
What seems to correlate with high attachment
High parental sensitivity, negative temperament (with resistant attachment), quality family environment
Criticism of the strange situation test
May only measure children’s response to stress, more representing the temperament of the child
Diagnosing symptoms of ASD (3)
Deficits in social communication and interaction across multiple contexts
Restricted/repetitive behaviors or interests
High reactivity to sensory aspects of environment
ASD prevalence and male:female ratio
4:1 ratio, 1 / 110 diagnosed - up from 1 / 5000 in 1975
Heritability of ASD
Highly… 36% of MZ twins diagnosed and 0% of DZ, 0.93 genetic in ACE model
Genetic cause of ASD
Like most psychiatric disorders, it is polygenetic (multiple genes causing it) - many different alleles have a small effect combined
GWAS studies have found correlations of common (49%) and rare (3%) genes with ASD, and a 3% de novo mutation cause
De novo mutations
Genetic mutations occurring from one generation to the next
Potential environmental causes of ASD (3)
Prenatal stress has been linked to it when 3 times as many ASD births occurred with mothers with high exposure to severe storms compared to low
Smoking and lead/other metal exposure also linked
Relevant (to the module) impairments of ASD
Lack of ToM Executive dysfunction (frontal lobe abnormalities) Weak central coherence - explaining intense interests
Central coherence
Tendency to draw together diverse information to construct higher levels of meaning in context
Evidence against ASD having a single cause, and being a single disorder
Symptoms are independently heritable
Polygenetic
Symptoms have distinct cognitive causes
Conduct disorder and heritability
Angry, irritable, defiant vindictive etc (anti-social behavior) outside of age appropriate norms for at least 6 months
Shown to be highly (50%) heritable
Callousiunemtional traits
Lack of guilt / remorse / concern for others and shallow emotions - 50% of conduct disorder people
Experimental differences in those with conduct disorder (4)
Overactive amygdala when shown fearful faces
Less accurate at labeling fear and sad faces
More likely to attribute hostile intentions to others when in ambiguous situations
Mirrors symptoms of frontal lobe damage (executive dysfunction), e.g. impaired inhibition
Social learning theory on anti-social behaviour
Children learn aggressive behavior through imitation of others (Bandura’s doll observable learning study)
Parenting’s role in anti-social behaviour
Harsh physical and psychological control of children correlate with anti-social behavior
Gene-environment interaction in anti-social behavior
Passive correlation ruled out by adoption studies showing harsh parenting’s effect in related and unrelated families
Evocative gene-environment correlation likely - the child’s genetic predisposition influences their and their parents behavior… child with conduct problems elicits more harsh parenting, worsening the problem
