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Developmental Flashcards

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1
Q

Difference between continuity and stability as developmental concepts

A

Continuity is the degree of consistency in group means, whereas stability is the degree of consistency in individual differences (stable being if their rank order in group stays the same over time)

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2
Q

Domain specific

A

Focus on a particular behavior, emphasizing things with a narrow effect

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3
Q

Domain general

A

Focus on a range of behaviors, emphasizing things with a broad effect

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4
Q

Empiricism and Nativism

A

Empiricism is the theory that development comes through experience, whereas nativism claims that development comes from genetics (is innate)

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5
Q

Pragmatism theory and example

A

Between empiricism and nativism, a child’s capacity for actions helps them adapt to objects and concepts, emphasizes cognitive development
Piaget’s constructionism is an example

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6
Q

Piaget’s constuctivism

A

Cognitive development (internalizing experience) is a progression through fixed stages and is necessary for learning… experience is filtered through natural schema, which is updated when challenged by experience (RW rule)… Children construct their understanding, are active in it

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7
Q

Socio-cultural theory

A

Development occurs due to interaction with more able individuals. Function changes are observed first then internalized

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8
Q

Zone of proximal development

A

Distance between actual development and the level of potential development

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9
Q

Explain false dichotomy of nature vs nurture

A

Genes exert influence on the environment yet the environment influences genetic expression (e.g. epigenetics)

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10
Q

Developmental systems theory (research more)

A

Emphasizes nature-nurture complexity, individuals interaction with the environment across time and individuals’ diversity and plasticity

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11
Q

Cross sectional research and limitations (3)

A

Conducted at a single time, describing the pattern of relationships
Not causal, nothing about an individuals development overtime and confounded by cohort effects

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12
Q

Longitudinal research

A

Measuring the same individual at more than one point in time (causal)

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13
Q

Types of longitudinal research (3)

A

Panel studies - one cohort studied overtime
Multiple cohort studies - staggered overtime
Intervention studies - manipulating the circumstances

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14
Q

Types of genetically sensitive research designs

A

Behavior genetics - focused on differences
Quantitative genetics - estimates genes / environments influence (e.g. twin studies etc)
Molecular genetics - grouping DNA variants with traits

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15
Q

Logic behind twin studies

A

Since Monozygotics share 100% DNA and Dizygotic 50%, if monozygotic twins score more similarly then the trait is more heritable

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16
Q

A, C and E in twin studies

A

A - Additive genetic effect (heritability estimate)
C - Common environment estimate
E - Non-shared environment estimate

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17
Q

Difference between heritable and innate

A

Heritability describes the proportion of individual’s variance than can be attributed to DNA
Innate describes human universals (2 eyes) that are only not the case due to the environment

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18
Q

Logic behind adoption studies

A

Can compare the adopted child to their parents and biological parents to see the impact of the environment

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19
Q

Describe habituation / dis-habituation toddler research

A

Present stimuli until uninterested, then change it. When the original stimuli returns, discrimination is apparent if the toddler reacts to it again

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20
Q

Describe anticipatory looking toddler research

A

Infants observe a predictable sequence. When repeated, their gaze is recorded to see if it anticipates

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21
Q

Describe violation of expectations toddler research

A

Shown events compatible with a principle. Looking times are measured when the principle is violated to see if the infant understands the principle

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22
Q

Piaget’s ideas on how children think

A

Children’s cognition (qualitatively different from adults) develops in a fixed, universal sequence - each part having a unique logic

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23
Q

Piaget’s stages of development (4)

A 
Sensorimotor (0-2) - beings to act intentionally and differentiates oneself from objects
Preoperational (2-7) - represents objects in mind, largely egocentric, classifies objects by single features
Concrete operational (7-12) - logically reflects, understands measurements, classifies objects by several features
Formal operational (12-...) - thinks abstractly and logically about hypothetical's and the future
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24
Q

Describe A not B test (for infants) and critisism

A

Object under container A until habituated, then moved to B in front of the infant. Under 6 months, infant doesn’t look under B.
This could be due to lack of concentration

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25
Q

Conservation and why errors in it occur (3)

A

Knowing something is the same when it’s appearance changes (water from tall glass to wide glass)
Errors occur due to ego-centrism, centration (fixation on one feature) and reversibility (inability to reverse events

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26
Q

Criticism of Piaget’s stages of development and evidence

A

Thought development was domain general, but it may be domain specific as children perform differently on tasks supposed to measure the same cognitive stage
Piaget claimed this was only temporary

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27
Q

Predictors of poor performance in A not B task (2)

A

Long delays before asking

More A trials before switching to B

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28
Q

Components of number cognition (2)

A

Abstraction (counting or estimating) - creating appropriate numerical representations
Reasoning (adding etc) - understanding the principles of numerical manipulation

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29
Q

Distance effect for numbers

A

The closer the numbers in question, the more errors

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30
Q

Subitizing

A

Enumerating without conscious counting (in reaction time tasks)

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31
Q

Piaget’s ideas on children understanding numbers (4)

A 
Counting doesn't show understanding
They have no innate number sense
They do not understand until 7, needing conservation, class inclusion and seriation (ordering)
It is a domain general process
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32
Q

Principles of counting (5)

A

One to one - each item tagged with number
Stable order - for tags, repeated the same
Cardinal - Final tag represents total
Abstraction - anything can be counted
Order irrelevance - tagging order doesn’t matter

First 3 claimed to be acquired in pre-operational (cardinal = last) but the other two for older children

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33
Q

Number sense hypothesis

A

Brain has an innate mechanism for numerical qualities, derived from evolutionary past

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34
Q

How the number sense improves with age

A

Experiments show 6 months olds to discriminate at a 2:1 ratio, 3 year olds at a 4:3 and adults at a 11:10

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35
Q

Genetic influence of maths (2)

A

School test results show it to be highly heritable

And domain general as it correlates with IQ and literacy

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36
Q

Environmental influence of maths (2) and critisism

A

Socio-economic background and mother’s education are strong predictors
However this could be a passive genetic indicator

37
Q

Difference between reliability and validity

A

Reliability is if the measure yields the same results on repetition whereas validity is if the measure is measuring what it claims to

38
Q

Psychometrics

A

Science of psychological assessment concerning individual differences

39
Q

What is (5) and is not (2) measured in psychometric intelligence tests

A

Is: understanding, adaption, working memory, processing speed and problem solving
Is not: emotional intelligence, social ability

40
Q

Single and multiple item intelligence tests and example of each

A

Single item ones measure one aspect of intelligence (Ravens progressive matrices test) and multiple item measures multiple (Wechsler’s test)

41
Q

Factor analysis

A

Determines the latent variables (factors) that account for the variation amongst observed measures, accounting for errors / anomalies

42
Q

Catell’s two factors of intelligence

A

Fluid - using no previous knowledge

Crystallised - using established store of knowledge

43
Q

IQ test scores

A

Given a value based on where one is on a normal distribution for their age (mean = 100, SD = 15)

44
Q

IQ definitions of (1) learning disability and (2) gifted person

A

1) 70 or below
2) 130 or above
(Both are 2 SD’s from mean)

45
Q

Correlations with IQ scores

A

School results, socio-economic status and self-control

46
Q

Heritability of IQ tests

A

Very high, MZ twins show the same correlation as individuals retesting themselves. However environmental influences are also established

47
Q

Genes that determine intelligence intelligence

A

Seems to be polygenetic - individual genes having a small effect on intelligence so is down to combinations

48
Q

The Flynn effect and implications

A

Evidence was found for substantial gains in fluid intelligence across generations in 5 countries - 30 point increase in a century
Shows the environments influence on intelligence

49
Q

Theory of mind

A

Capacity to attribute mental states to others, enabling the predicting or explaining of their behaviour

50
Q

Piaget’s ideas on theory of mind development (2)

A

Only egocentric interaction between children until after the pre-operational stage (age of 8)
Had a domain general view, seeing ToM and cognition development as inseparable

51
Q

Describe the false belief identity task

A

Object enclosed in an unexpected package (pencils in a Smarties box). Ask children if their (e.g.) mother will know what is in the box. If they say pencils, shows the child has theory of mind

52
Q

Describe false belief changing location task

A

Character A puts item in location. Character B then moves it without A’s knowledge. Ask child where A will look for item. If they say in original location, shows the child has theory of mind

53
Q

Nativist account for theory of mind and a study that supports it

A

It is innate, domain specific skill
Box study: 15 month old found to look longer when the expectation of an object’s location was violated as the experimenter reaches to another location - indicating ToM in infants

54
Q

Constructivist account for theory of mind

A

That stages of it develop and increase in sophistication, depending on interaction with the environment

55
Q

Relationship between theory of mind and executive function

A

Highly correlated (false belief and EF task performance), both impaired in ASD children. EF is thought to come before ToM as control of personal thoughts should predate understanding of others thoughts.

56
Q

Social constuctivist account for theory of mind and study that supports it

A

Conversations with others are primarily responsable for ToM development as they help us understand others views (trial and error learning)
Evidenced by study showing more discussion with parents about mental states means more ToM

57
Q

Mind-mindedness

A

Proclivity to view others as individuals with their own mental states

58
Q

What correlates with high theory of mind (3)

A

High mind-mindedness, larger families, higher socio-economic status

59
Q

Piaget’s ideas on moral reasoning (4)

A

Children are moral realists, following rules inflexibly until age 12
They are focused on consequences rather than motives until around 9 years old (subjective responsibility)
They are keen on punishment (justice) for bad consequences
Is domain general, cognitive shortcomings causing slow development (e.g. ego-centrism)

60
Q

Kohlberg’s moral reasoning dilemma

A

Husband cannot pay for a life saving drug for their wife so, after trying to raise the money, he steals it. Was he wrong?

61
Q

Kohlberg’s moral reasoning categories (3)

A

Pre-conventional reasoning - avoid punishment, conform to power, ‘right’ actions satisfy oneself
Conventional reasoning - ‘right’ action pleases others, rules are fixed (to maintain order)
Post-conventional reasoning - ‘right’ is what is agreed upon, rules are flexible and principles abstract

62
Q

Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning and support for it

A

It develops through stages that mirror Piaget’s cognitive stages of development
Longitudinal study found 94% of participants to adhere to this stage model

63
Q

Evidence for an innate (nativist) moral sense and critisism

A

6 month old infants favored the helpful toy over the one that knocked it down the hill
However maybe crashing downwards is more aversive than an object moving upwards in a controlled way (re-run of experiment indicates this is true)

64
Q

Social-interactionist view on moral reasoning

A

A predisposition for helping may be present at birth yet social experience (praise/observing) very influential

65
Q

Bowlby’s theory of attachment

A

From research, he postulated that parental care was vital for strong mental health, maternal deprivation being particularly damaging. Said because of strong, innate affectionate bonds for contact and intimacy

66
Q

Stages of early attachment (4)

A

Before 3 months - responds to others with limited discrimination
3-6 months - discriminates common figures (parents), greeting their return etc
9 months - 2 years - puts energy into maintaining proximity with them, clinging and crying etc
2-5 years - develops insight into their behavior, formulating an internal working model of their relationship

67
Q

Bowlby’s predictions of attachment (3)

A

Feeling secure encourages exploration, fear encouraging attachment
Parenting quality influences mental health and personal relationships later in life
Sustained, responsive parenting needed for attachment

68
Q

Describe the strange situation test

A

A stranger enters the room, talks to the mother then plays with the infant. The mother then leaves, re-enters. Then the stranger leaves, the mother leaves again (child alone). Then the stranger re-enters, then the mother and finally the stranger leaves. Child’s behavior is being measured and coded for attachment to mother

69
Q

General findings in the strange situation test

A

A child’s exploration reduces and attachment increases when the mother leaves due to fear of mothers absence

70
Q

Attachment status’ derived from the strange situation test (3) and their prevalence

A

Avoidant (A, 20%) - not distressed when separated and doesn’t greet parent
Secure (B, 70%) - sometimes distressed when separated and responds positively to reunion
Resistant (C, 10%) - consistent distress when separate, greets upon reunion and parent not effective in reducing stress

71
Q

Ainsworth’s measures for parental sensitivity (4)

A

Awareness of child’s signals
Accuracy of interpretation of signals
Appropriateness of response to signals
Promptness of response

72
Q

Temperament

A

Innate individual differences in reactivity / self-regulation

73
Q

What seems to correlate with high attachment

A

High parental sensitivity, negative temperament (with resistant attachment), quality family environment

74
Q

Criticism of the strange situation test

A

May only measure children’s response to stress, more representing the temperament of the child

75
Q

Diagnosing symptoms of ASD (3)

A

Deficits in social communication and interaction across multiple contexts
Restricted/repetitive behaviors or interests
High reactivity to sensory aspects of environment

76
Q

ASD prevalence and male:female ratio

A

4:1 ratio, 1 / 110 diagnosed - up from 1 / 5000 in 1975

77
Q

Heritability of ASD

A

Highly… 36% of MZ twins diagnosed and 0% of DZ, 0.93 genetic in ACE model

78
Q

Genetic cause of ASD

A

Like most psychiatric disorders, it is polygenetic (multiple genes causing it) - many different alleles have a small effect combined
GWAS studies have found correlations of common (49%) and rare (3%) genes with ASD, and a 3% de novo mutation cause

79
Q

De novo mutations

A

Genetic mutations occurring from one generation to the next

80
Q

Potential environmental causes of ASD (3)

A

Prenatal stress has been linked to it when 3 times as many ASD births occurred with mothers with high exposure to severe storms compared to low
Smoking and lead/other metal exposure also linked

81
Q

Relevant (to the module) impairments of ASD

A 
Lack of ToM
Executive dysfunction (frontal lobe abnormalities)
Weak central coherence - explaining intense interests
82
Q

Central coherence

A

Tendency to draw together diverse information to construct higher levels of meaning in context

83
Q

Evidence against ASD having a single cause, and being a single disorder

A

Symptoms are independently heritable
Polygenetic
Symptoms have distinct cognitive causes

84
Q

Conduct disorder and heritability

A

Angry, irritable, defiant vindictive etc (anti-social behavior) outside of age appropriate norms for at least 6 months
Shown to be highly (50%) heritable

85
Q

Callousiunemtional traits

A

Lack of guilt / remorse / concern for others and shallow emotions - 50% of conduct disorder people

86
Q

Experimental differences in those with conduct disorder (4)

A

Overactive amygdala when shown fearful faces
Less accurate at labeling fear and sad faces
More likely to attribute hostile intentions to others when in ambiguous situations
Mirrors symptoms of frontal lobe damage (executive dysfunction), e.g. impaired inhibition

87
Q

Social learning theory on anti-social behaviour

A

Children learn aggressive behavior through imitation of others (Bandura’s doll observable learning study)

88
Q

Parenting’s role in anti-social behaviour

A

Harsh physical and psychological control of children correlate with anti-social behavior

89
Q

Gene-environment interaction in anti-social behavior

A

Passive correlation ruled out by adoption studies showing harsh parenting’s effect in related and unrelated families
Evocative gene-environment correlation likely - the child’s genetic predisposition influences their and their parents behavior… child with conduct problems elicits more harsh parenting, worsening the problem

Psychology (9 decks)

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