Research Methods (AS) Flashcards
What’s an experimental method
Where you measure one variable (dependent) by manipulating the other variable (independent) while the other variables are held constant
What’s an independent variable
The variable you manipulate
What’s the dependent variable
The variable you measure
What’s operationalising
Turning psychological variables into measurable ones
What’s extraneous variables
Variables other than the independent variable that may have an effect on the dependent variable
If not controlled, they become confounding variables
What’s a confounding variable
Uncontrolled extraneous variables that negatively effect the results
The research cycle
- Data observation E.g. I like music when I study
- Theory E.g. I learn better when music is playing
- Investigate, E.g. compare how much is learnt in silence or eight music playing
- Results of investigation (support or challenge theory)
What are the 4 different types of experiments
Laboratory experiment
Field experiment
Natural experiment
Quasi experiment
Describe a laboratory experiment
- A lab experiment is in an artificial environment (experimenters environment)
- Experimenter manipulates the IV to see its effect on the DV
- Controlled environment, therefore little to no extraneous variables
Advantages and disadvantages of a lab experiment
Advantages= -Can control variables (no extraneous variables)
-No extraneous variables= Clear cause and effect
Disadvantages= -Difficulty generalising these results to real life
-Unnatural- People may act different (demand characteristics)
Describe a field experiment
- Researcher still manipulates the IV and the DV is still measured
- The environment is NOT controlled
- The experiment takes place in an environment natural to the participant
Advantages and disadvantages of a field experiment
Advantages= - Natural environment, therefore reduce demand characteristics
- Behaviour is easy to generalise as participants are unaware they’re being studied (no demand characteristics)
Disadvantages= -Harder to replicate
-More difficult to establish cause and effect because cannot control extraneous variables
Describe a natural experiment
- Researcher has no control over the IV, it varies naturally
- In participants natural environment
- Environment is not controlled
Advantages and disadvantages of a natural experiment
Advantages= -High in ecological validity as IV is naturally occurring
- Ethical as there’s no harm to participants caused by Researcher
Disadvantages= Researcher has no control over variables, therefore may be difficult to measure cause and effect
Describe a Quasi experiment
- To investigate relationships between an IV and DV in situations where IV is a characteristic of a person
- IV is not manipulated as it’s a characteristic of a person E.g. age, sex, personality
- If we can manipulate the IV it’s not quasi
Advantages and disadvantages of a quasi experiment
Advantages= -Researcher can have control over the design of the study and other extraneous variable— experiment can take place in a laboratory for example. Therefore, can measure cause and effect easier
Disadvantages= -Sample bias- cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions, so other variables may have an effect. Reducing validity
Examples of non-experimental methods
- Questionnaires
- Interview
- Case study
- Observation
- Correlation
Observational studies involve what
Watching and recording people’s behaviour
What are the two observational techniques
- Naturalistic
- Controlled
What’s the naturalistic observational technique
- Observing and noting behaviour in a natural environment. E.g. Watching animals in their natural environment
What’s the controlled observational technique
- Setting up a situation and observing and noting behaviour. E.g. watching animals where they have been given particular play items
What’s Participant observations
Observations made by someone who is also participating in the activity being observed
What’s non-Participant observations
The observer is separate from the people being observed
What’s a covert observation
Observing people without their knowledge
What’s an Overt observation
Observing people who are aware they’re being studied
What’s time sampling
- Recording data at particular intervals
E.g. what an individual does every 30 seconds
What’s event sampling
A target behaviour/event is recorded every time it is observed
E.g. every time a student screams
What type of observations tend to have high ecological validity
Naturalistic and covert
How can observations have observer bias
If the observer has expectations of what he expects to happen, he may only record that data which fits with his theory
E.g. observer thinks boys are more aggressive than girls, he may over record instances of boys shaving aggressively and under record when girls are being aggressive
How can you reduce observer bias
- Using more than one observer
- Using double blind technique, where the observer doesn’t know the aims of the study
Why do observations often have low reliability
Because they can be difficult to replicate, as they take place at a specific place and time
How can reliability be assessed
Using inter-observer reliability
Advantage and disadvantage of overt observations
Advantage= - Participants know they’re being observed therefore its ethical
Disadvantage= - However, they know they’re being observed therefore demand characteristics therefore low in ecological validity
- Covert observations are the opposite
What are structured interviews
Questions that are decided before-hand
Advantages and disadvantages of a structured interview
Advantages= - Reliable as they can be replicated
- Its efficient therefore, can interview more
Disadvantages= - Lack of flexibility- can lack depth
- Investigator effects as the investigator can affect how you answer questions
What are unstructured interviews
Questions are not decided before hand
Advantages and disadvantages of unstructured interviews
Advantages= - Go into much more detail
- Participant is able to express themselves further
- More relaxed, easier to be truthful about sensitive areas
Disadvantages= - Difficult to stay focused on the main point
- Hard to compare
Design of interviews should include
1) Interview schedule = Standardised list of questions that interviewer needs to cover, can reduce interviewer bias
2) Quiet room = increase likelihood of interviewee being more open
3) Rapport = Begin with neutral questions to make participants relaxed
4) Ethics = Remind interviewees that answers will be treated
What are closed questions
Questions that give a set of possible answers, fixed by the researcher
What are open questions
Questions that allow for an open/free response
Advantages and disadvantages of closed questions
Advantages= - Easy to compare results
- Easy and quick to answer
Disadvantages= - Can force an answer the respondent may not want to give
- Can’t express an opinion
Advantages and disadvantages of open questions
Advantages= - More detail
- Makes respondent feel like they’re receiving personal attention
Disadvantages= - Not practical for large groups
- More time consuming
- Can’t compare answers as easily
Strengths and weaknesses of questionnaires
Strengths= -Large amounts of data gathered quickly, therefore cost effective
- Researcher doesn’t have to be present, respondents may share more personal information
Weaknesses= -Response bias- respondents may favour a particular response
-Social desirability bias may still be possible (anonymity may help reduce likelihood of this)
What’s a pilot study
- An initial run through of the procedures to be used in an investigation
Involves selecting a few people and trying out the study on them. This can save time and money by identifying any flaws in procedures. E.g. confusion in participants or problems with the task
Describe the correlation coefficients
0= No correlation
- 3 and below= weak correlation
- 31-0.69= moderate correlation
- 7 and above= strong correlation
2 advantages and 2 disadvantages of correlations
Advantages= -Shows relationship between two variables so predictions can be made. E.g. ice cream sales go up on hot days
-No manipulation of variables so can study the relationship between two things ethically
Disadvantages= -Can’t measure cause and effect
-Extraneous variables play a role when interpreting the relationship
What are the 6 main ethical issues in psychological research
- Informed consent
- Deception
- Right to withdraw
- Protection from psychological harm
- Confidentiality
- Privacy
What should occur ethically before and after the experiment
- A verbal brief before
- A verbal debrief after
What’s a target population
All members of the group the researcher is interested in
What’s the 5 main types of sampling
Not including time or event sampling
- Random sampling
- Systematic sampling
- Stratified sampling
- Volunteer sampling
- Opportunity sampling
What’s random sampling
1 adv
1 disadv
- Every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected
Adv= For large samples it provides best chance of an unbiased representative sample
Disadv= For large populations it’s time consuming to create a large list of every individual
What’s systematic sampling
1 adv
1 disadv
- Every nth person is selected from the target population to be in the sample. E.g. every 3rd person
Adv= Avoids researcher bias in terms of selection of participants
Disadv= Runs Risk of being unrepresentative. E.g. every 3rd person may be all female, resulting in an all female sample
What’s stratified sampling
1 adv
1 disadv
- Selecting members in proportion that they occur in the population. E.g. 2.5% of British are of Indian origin, so 2.5% of the sample should be of Indian origin
Adv= Efforts been made to make sample representative
Disadv= Can be time consuming as subcategories have to be identified and proportions calculated
What’s volunteer sampling
1 adv
1 disadv
- Individuals who have chosen to be involved in the study
Adv= Relatively convenient and ethical if it leads to informed consent
Disadv= Unrepresentative as it leads to bias on the part of the participant. E.g. a daytime advert wouldn’t attract full-time workers
What’s opportunity sampling
1 adv
1 disadv
- Selecting people that are available at the time
Adv= Quick, convenient
Disadv= Very unrepresentative samples and often biased by the researcher who will likely choose people who look ‘helpful’
What’s the difference between an aim and a hypothesis
- Aim= An outline on what’s being studied and why a study is taking place. E.g.”to investigate the effect of caffeine on performance”
- Hypothesis= A precise, testable prediction of the outcome of a study. E.g. “there will be a difference in reaction times of those that have consumed caffeine and a control”
Describe an alternative hypothesis
Can be either directional or non-directional.
It states there will be an effect
Describe a null hypothesis
States there will be no effect
“There will be no difference in people’s mood score depending on whether recorded on a sunny day or a rainy day”
What does a directional hypothesis say
Directional hypothesis states the direction of difference between two conditions
When are directional hypotheses used
When past research has been done in that field
What does a non-directional hypothesis say
Non directional hypothesis states there will be a difference but doesn’t predict the direction
When are non-directional hypotheses used
When there’s no past research done in that field
What are the measures of central tendency
What are the measures of dispersion
Central tendency= Mean, median, mode
Dispersion= Range and standard deviation
What’s quantitative data
What’s qualitative data
Quantitative= Numerical data
Qualitative= Non-Numerical data
Adv and disadv of qualitative data
Adv= - More detailed
Disadv= - Subjective
- Difficult to compare
- Low In reliability
Adv and disadv of quantitative data
Adv= - Objective
- Easy to compare
- High In reliability
Disadv= - Less detailed
What’s primary data
Original data collected towards a research aim, which has not been published before
What’s secondary data
Data originally collected towards another research aim, which has been published before
What’s a meta-analysis
Combining findings of several research studies, of a certain research area into one larger study
What’s standard deviation
The average amount all scores deviate from the mean
- Difference from the mean, to each score
Adv and disadv of standard deviation
Adv= -Not affected by anomalies
-Gives a more accurate idea of how data is distributed
Disadv= -Doesn’t give you the full range of the data
-Can be heard to calculate
What’s the 3 levels of data
- Nominal= categories
- Ordinal= ranking
- Interval= data on a scale
And ratio if it’s time (don’t know if learnt)
Match what type of dispersion is used with what central central tendency
- When using the mean use standard deviation
- When using the median use range
- When using the mode use range
What’s a case study
A detailed investigation of one individual or a small group
2 Adv and 2 disadv of a case study
Adv= - Rich in detail. As they provide great depth and understanding about individuals
- Useful for theory contradiction. Can help question evidence of a theory
Disadv= - Researcher bias. They may be biased in their interpretations or method of reporting
- Not representative. As no two case studies are alike, results cannot be generalised
What’s a content analysis
A method of quantifying qualitative data through the use of coding units
2 Adv and 2 disadv of content analysis
Adv= - Ease of application. Easy-to-perform, inexpensive research method, non-invasive, as it doesn’t require contact with participants
- Reliability. Easy to replicate
Disadv= - Descriptive. Purely descriptive therefore doesn’t reveal underlying reasons for behaviour
- Lack of causality. Not under controlled conditions therefore doesn’t show causality
3 features of a normal distribution
- Bell-shaped curve
- People are located in the middle of the bell curve
- Extreme scores are theoretically impossible
What’s a positive skewed distribution
Where most of the distribution is concentrated towards the left of the graph, resulting in a long tail of anomalous scores on the right
What’s a negative skewed distribution
Where all the scores are concentrated on the right, resulting in a long tail of anomalous scores on the left
