Gender Flashcards
Difference between sex and gender
Sex= -The Genotype (chromosomes) E.g. XY, XX.
- Testosterone, Oestrogen (progesterone)
- The Phenotype (penis/testes, vagina)
Gender= -Sex role behaviours
- Sex/gender identity
- Cognitive abilities
- Attitudes and perceptions
Sex can be defined in terms of 3 kinds of physical differences between males and females
1) Fertilisation= Whether egg (which carries an X chromosome) was fertilised by a sperm carrying an X or a Y chromosome
- XX= girl, XY= boy
2) Gonads= Males have testes and females have ovaries
3) Hormones= Males produce androgens(most important one being testosterone) and females produce oestrogen and progesterone
How many pairs of chromosomes do humans have
46 chromosomes
23 pairs
Biological sex is determined on what pair of chromosomes
The last one, 23rd pair of chromosomes
If the pairing is XX it’s what gender
If the pairing is XY it’s what gender
XX = Female
XY = Male
What chromosome does a normal egg produce
A normal egg produced by an ovary have an X chromosome
What’s a baby’s sex determined by
What sperm cell fertilises the egg
E.g. boy if sperm is carrying a Y chromosome and a girl if it’s carrying an X chromosome
The Y chromosome carries what gene
The SRY gene
What does the SRY gene do
- SRY gene causes the testes to develop in an XY embryo
- These produce Androgens: Male sex hormones
What do Androgens cause the embryo to do
Androgens cause the embryo to become a Male; without them the embryo becomes a female
What’s the difference in role of chromosomes and hormones
- Chromosomes initially determine a persons sex
- Most gender development is governed by hormones. They’re produced prenatally and during puberty
What do hormones affect
They influence development of genitalia and/or affect the development of the brain, both of which influence gender behaviour
What are the 3 main different hormones
- Testosterone
- Oestrogen
- Oxytocin
Describe testosterone
A male hormone, which develops the Male sex organs and is linked with behaviours such as increases aggression
Describe oestrogen
A female hormone which develops female sexual characteristics and is linked with emotional changes during menstrual cycle (e.g. Increased irritability)
Describe oxytocin
- A hormone which facilitates bonding
- Released In large doses after childbirth, making the mother feel a strong emotional connection to their baby.
- Produced In lower quantities in men, but in equal amounts in both sexes during sexual intercourse
Male hormones are collectively known as….
Androgens
Testosterone is linked to what type of behaviour in both genders, but more so in men (in humans and animals)
Aggression
De poll et al study on testosterone
Method, results, conclusion
- Female rats injected with testosterone
- Became more physical and sexually aggressive
- Supports role of gender development because testosterone causes aggressive behaviour. Greater in men so can account for difference in gender behaviours. Also Valid as environment is controlled (rats born into labs, can control experiences) which eliminates environmental factors in terms of aggression
What other explanations can you provide for why males are more aggressive
- Job occupations
What’s Androgen insensitivity syndrome
Where a genetic Male is not exposed to enough testosterone in the womb, and can therefore look physically female at birth
When do males who suffer from androgen insensitivity syndrome start physically looking like males
During puberty when hormonal changes occur (more testosterone)
Study for androgen insensitivity syndrome
Batista boys
How does the case of the Batista Boys support the role of hormones in gender development
- At puberty, testosterone changes their physical appearance
- Gender identity
- Testosterone changed their phenotype
Describe oestrogen
Female hormone responsible for controlling the onset of puberty (along with progesterone, where secondary sexual characteristics like breasts are formed), menstruation and foetal development when pregnant
Why’s oestrogen important in females after puberty
Because it’s influence on the menstruated cycle
What’s the behavioural effects of oestrogen
- Pre-menstrual tension (PMT) or pre-menstrual syndrome (PMS)
- Psychological effect
- Increased emotionality, irritability and aggression and even criminal behaviour which has been used in court as defence and been accepted (Easteal 1991)
What’s Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
Where a genetic female is exposed to too much testosterone. Genitalia can appear swollen, and may act more masculine (tomboys)
Describe oxytocin
A hormone that acts also as a neurotransmitter and is produced both inside and outside the brain by both males and females and controls key aspects of the reproductive system
What sex does oxytocin have a greater effect on
Females as it combines with oestrogen to enhance each other’s effect. Facilitates childbirth by stimulating contractions
What happens to oxytocin to males after orgasm
Drops immediately, explaining their sudden loss of intimacy
What’s oxytocin effect on females behaviour
Nurturing, acceptance and protection of offspring
Evaluation of role of chromosomes and hormones
David Reimer study
- David born as Bruce, taken to be circumcised as an infant got his penis burnt off due to electrical malfunction.
- Psychologist suggested ‘gender’ is created by upbringing and environment, therefore raised as a girl for first years of life
- However, Not successful and was told truth when a teenager.
- Immediately changed back to living as a man called David
- Case shows nature overrides influence of nurture
2 more evaluation points for role of chromosomes and hormones
- Van Goozen et al, when injected with Male or female hormones, transgender individuals demonstrated more typical Male or female behaviours (in line with the hormones they’re receiving). Supports link between hormones and gender behaviour
- Tricker et al found no differences in behaviours amongst participants injected with testosterone or a placebo, weakening the link between hormones and gender behaviour
Chromosomes and hormones are what type of behaviours
Examples of typical sex chromosome patterns / typical behaviour
What are 2 examples of Atypical sex chromosome patterns
Klinefelter’s syndrome and Turner’s syndrome
Describe Turners syndrome
When women only have one chromosome (xo)
- Causes women to have no menstrual cycle
- Broad chest
- Better at school, work higher than average at reading, memory and maths tasks
- Socially immature
Describe Klinefelter’s syndrome
Affects males who have XXY chromosomes, am extra X chromosome
- Worse at school, poor language and reading skills, issues with executive functioning
- Decrease body hair
- Breast development and co-ordination
- Infertility
What view does Cognitive developmental explanations share
AO1
That a child‘s mental concept of gender becomes more sophisticated with age
What did Kohlberg suggest
AO1
Suggested that a child’s understanding of gender develops in 3 stages
What does it mean when Kohlberg said the 3 stages are universal
AO1
It doesn’t matter where in the world you are, children still go through the same cognitive development
Any differences in Male and female behaviour is due to what
AO1
Cultural differences
What are the 3 stages of development
1) Gender identity
2) Gender stability
3) Gender constancy
Describe gender identity stage
- 2-3 years
- Correctly identify themselves as a boy or girl
- Believe sex can change - a girl may want to be a daddy when she’s older
- Believe changing clothes can change a persons sex. E.g. boy in a dress becomes a girl
- May show a preference for playing with children of their own sex
Describe gender stability stage
- 3-4 years
- Begin to realise sex will not change over time
- Due to being egocentric they don’t realise it also applies to other people
- See certain characteristics as being masculine or feminine, e.g. assume heavy labour job is for a man
Describe gender constancy stage
- 6-7 years
- Realise other people have different point of view from their own- they’re less egocentric (they de-Centre)
- Realise everyone’s gender is constant and changes in appearance doesn’t influence if they’re Male or female
- Still regard a man in a dress is unusual
- Seek role models to imitate to help them develop their sense of gender
Marcus and Overton study on Kohlbergs 3 stages
Method, results, conclusion
- M= Using a flip book, children showed muddled pictures where hairstyles and clothes of Male and female characters could be changed. Children asked what sex the characters are
- R= Younger children believed changing clothes can change a persons sex. E.g. boy in a dress becomes a girl
- C= Older children understood gender is constant, and changes in appearance doesn’t influence whether they’re Male or female. Supporting Kohlbergs theory
Slaby and Frey’s study on Kohlbergs 3 stages
Method, results, conclusion
- M= 1 Male and 1 female adult model carry out stereotyped gender role activities. Screen was split
- R= Found child who’s reached high levels of gender constancy spent more time watching same sex models than this with low levels of gender constancy
- C= Supports Kohlbergs theory that children pay attention to same sex models after gender constancy stage has been reached
Evaluation of Kohlbergs 3 stage theory
- Constancy isn’t supported. Evidence to suggest many children begin to demonstrate gender appropriate behaviour before gender constancy stage
- Bussey and Bandura, found 4 year old children reported ‘feeling good’ about playing with gender-appropriate toys and ‘feeling bad’ doing the opposite. Contradicts Kohlbergs theory, but supports scheme theory, which suggests children begin to absorb gender-appropriate information as soon as they identify as Male or female’s
Methodological evaluation of Kohlbergs theory
- Theory developed using interviews with children who were as young as 2. Age group lack vocabulary required to express understanding. Might have complex ideas but can’t express them. Therefore, what they express might not truly reflect their understanding
Evaluation of Kohlbergs theory relating to the approaches
- Universality of theory suggests idea the sequence of gender stages have a biological basis. This is because, all males and females progress in the same way. May be driven by nature as otherwise we would expect differences between different cultures
What’s gender schema
Martin Halverson agreed with Kohlberg that a child’s thinking is the basis of gender behaviour, but believed this thinking starts earlier and is more active
The process of acquiring gender relevant information before gender constancy is achieved (aged 6)
- A mental representation that guides processing of information and experiences
Describe gender schema for each stage
Stage 1= Children have a basic understanding of what it is to be a boy or girl (3 years)
Stage 2= They have a more developed schema for their sex (4-6)
Stage 3= Their schemas for both sexes are developed (>6)
Liben and Signorella study on gender schemas
- A study of 106 primary school children shows supporting evidence for the active process of schema development, whereby children recalled more pictures of men performing masculine behaviours than of men performing feminine behaviours
Positives of gender schema theory
- Schema theory has greater explanatory power than Kohlbergs theory. Explains why children’s attitudes and behaviour concerning gender are rigid and long lasting
- ## Explains why children model gender appropriate behaviour than imitate a same sex role model carrying out gender inappropriate behaviour. Better explanation than SLT which states children imitate same sex models
Negatives of gender schema theory
- Evidence shows children act in gender-typical way before they develop gender schemas. Scaffer argues children’s monitoring of their own and others behaviour lead to development of gender schemas
- Gender schema is reductionist. Neglects biological factors, assuming gender behaviour is through cognitive means
