Memory Flashcards
Who created the multi-store model
Atkinson and shiffrin
What are the 3 memory stores
Sensory register/memory
Short-term memory
Long-term memory
What are the five things that occur in between the memory stores
And what are they in between
- INPUT(5 senses)= Into the sensory register/memory
- ATTENTION= Sensory register/memory to the Short-term memory
- REHEARSAL LOOP= Above the Short-term memory
- REHEARSAL= Short-term memory to the Long-term memory
- RETRIEVAL= Long-term memory back to the Short-term memory
What occurs at every memory store
Information is lost
3 stages involved in memory
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
What’s encoding
Information registered into your memory system
What’s storage
Information is held in the memory system
What’s retrieval
Recall or remembering
What’s the encoding of the Sensory Register
There are separate sensory stores
Crowder (1993) study on encoding of the sensory register/memory
Results and conclusion
Visual information lasts for a few milliseconds. But 2 or 3 seconds for acoustic
- This supports the idea that sensory information is coded into different sensory stores
Sperling’s study to support the sensory register. (Study on capacity and duration of the SR)
Method, results, conclusion
Method= Flashed 3x4 Grid of letters on to a screen. A tone was played just after display, high-pitched for top row, medium-tone for middle row and low-tone for low
Results= Recall of letters in the indicated row was high
Conclusion= Participants been reading letters from an after image(visual stores), capacity is large, Duration is short (half a second)
What occurs to sensory register with age
Sensory register decreases with age
Evaluation of sensory register
- Brief duration of SR has evolutionary value in that it retains information that increases chance of survival, whilst filtering out unimportant information
What’s the capacity, duration and coding of the Sensory register/memory
- Capacity= Large
- Duration= Visual= few milliseconds
Acoustic= 2-3 seconds - Coding= Seperate senses store
Baddeley study for encoding of short-term memory (and LTM)
Results found
- If participants were asked to immediately recall from STM they didn’t confuse words with same meaning (big and large) but confused words sounding similar (cat and cap).
- Works the opposite with LTM
- This suggests STM uses acoustic encoding, and LTM uses semantic (meaning) encoding, storing words according to their meaning
Peterson and peterson study on the duration of Short-term memory (effects of rehearsal)
Method, results
Method= Participants shown a trigram of consonants
- Asked to recall after 3,6,9,12,15,18 seconds (following an interference task so trigram can’t be rehearsed)
- Procedure repeated using different trigrams
Results= Participants able to recall 80% of trigrams after 3 seconds
- Fewer trigrams recalled as delay lengthened
- 10% of trigrams recalled after 18 seconds
Conclusion= Rehearsal is prevented, info vanishes from STM in a few seconds
Evaluation of Peterson and Peterson study for short term memory
- Trigrams are an artificial thing to remember, can’t really be applied to real life (ecological validity is low)
- Experimental method used, can see (causal) effect of time passing (IV) on recall (DV)
- Demand Characteristics as they know they’re being studied, cause non-accurate results. Low in validity and reliability
AO3 point for STM, Reitman’s study (conclusion)
- Suggested the brief duration of STM is due to displacement
What’s displacement (occurs in the STM)
Due to STM having a limited capacity, words are pushed out of memory to enable space
- New information pushes out existing information due to limited capacity
What’s the capacity, duration and coding for LTM
Capacity= potentially infinite
Duration= potential infinite
Coding= semantic (Baddeleys study for STM)
‘Frost’(1972) and ‘Nelson and Rothbart’(1972) studies on LTM.
Describe what they found
Conclude what they suggest
Frost= When encoding visual material, participants will use visual as well as semantic coding
Nelson and Rothbart= Recall errors involving homophones (pronounced the same but different meaning), shows acoustic coding is used in LTM
Evaluation= Different types of LTM involve different brain areas, suggesting these are encoded in different ways
Bahrick et al study on duration of LTM
method, results, conclusion
Method= 392 ex-High school students were asked to recall names of classmates
Results= After 34 years, still named 90% of students
Conclusion= LTM is long lasting
Evaluation= Info appears to be lost in LTM(multi store model), when there’s just a problem accessing it
Explain process of chunking
Chunking is where individual pieces of an information set are broken down and then grouped together in a meaningful whole
What memory store does chunking occur at
Short term memory
Evaluation of the Multi Store Model (MSM)
- Evidence to support importance of rehearsal. For example, if rehearsal is prevented, the recency effect disappears
- Proposes the transfer of information from STM to LTM through rehearsal, in day-to-day life, there’s little time for rehearsal. Not true to life
- Gives good understanding of structure and process of the STM. Allows researchers to expand on model
- Takes no account of the nature of information to be recalled, only the quantity of information. E.g. easier to remember birthdays than football scores
What’s the primacy effect
Remembering more words at start of list because they are being rehearsed and transferred to LTM
What’s the recency effect
Last words are recalled because they are most recent, and drawn from STM
What memory store does the working memory model (Baddeley and Hitch) represent
Short term memory
4 components of the working memory model
Central executive
Phonological Koop
Visuo-spatial sketchpad
Episodic buffer
Describe the central executive (CE)
- Acts as a filter to determine which information is received by senses is and isn’t attended to
- Processes and directs info to models slave systems and collects responses
- Limited In capacity and can only effectively cope with one strand of information at a time
- Selectively attends to particular types of info
Baddeley(1996) study on central executive
Results and conclusion
Results= Participants found it difficult to generate lists of random numbers whilst switching between pressing numbers and letters on a keyboard
Conclusion= Suggests, the two tasks were competing for CE resources. Supporting the limited capacity of CE and that it’s only able to cope with one type of info at a time
Evaluation of the Central executive
- Little is known about it. Vagueness means it can be used to explain almost any experimental results
- CE better understood controlling the focus of attention rather than being a memory store, unlike PL and VSS which are specialised memory stores
Describe the phonological loop (PL)
- Deals with auditory information
- Confusions can occur with similar sounding words
- Deals with order of words (after or before each other)
Baddeley et al (1975) study for capacity of phonological loop
Results and conclusion
- Reported on word length effect
Results= Participants recalled more short words in serial order than longer words
Conclusion= Supporting idea that capacity of PL is set by how long the words are, rather than number of words
Evaluation of the Phonological Loop
- PET scans, different brain areas activated when doing verbal and visual tasks. Suggests PL and VSS are separate systems
- PL associated with evolution of vocal language. Development of PL increasing STM ability to remember speech. Helped learning complex language abilities such as grammar
Describe the Visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS)
- VSS handles non-phonological information, and is a temporary store for visual and spatial items and relationships between them
- Helps individuals navigate around the physical environment
Baddeley and Gathercole(1993) study for VSS and PL being separate stores
- Participants had little difficulty tracking a light and performing a simultaneous verbal task, as they involve the PL and VSS, indicating they’re separate systems
Evaluation of VSS
- Studies of VSS (and PL) often feature a dual task, where participants perform two simultaneous activities. However, this is not encountered in everyday life, lack of application to real life
Describe the episodic buffer
- PL and VSS deal with processing and temporary storage of specific types of information but have limited capacity, and CE has no storage capacity, and so cannot contain items relating to visual and acoustic properties
- Therefore, EB was introduced to explain how it’s possible to temporarily store information combined together from the CE, PL, VSS and LTM
Alkhalifa (2009) study for episodic buffer
- Patient with impaired LTM, demonstrated STM capacity of 25 items, exceeding capacity of the PL and VSS.
- Suggesting existence of an EB, which holds items in working memory until recalled
Evaluation for working memory model
- It acknowledges there’s different components to the STM
- Acknowledges STM as an active process, however MSM presents STM as a passive process, showing WMM is more accurate
- Evidence to support model, comes from dual task studies, demonstrating people can carry out two tasks at once, as long as they’re using different components
- Encoding doesn’t happen as deeply if two components used at same time
Components of the cognitive interview
4 of them
- Recall event in different narrative orders
- Change of perspective
- Mentally reinstate the context
- Report everything
What’s change in narrative orders
Recall the event in different chronological orders
E.g. from end to beginning
What’s change of perspective
Recall the event from different peoples perspectives
E.g. from the offenders point of view
What’s mental reinstatement of context
Recall both the environmental and emotional context of the event
E.g. weather and personal feelings
What’s report everything
Recall all information, even that which has little relevance or that which is remembered less confidently or seems incomplete
What are the components of the cognitive interview there for
They’re there to improve recall in police interviews, developed by Fisher and Geiselman(1992)
What does ‘change of narrative order’ and ‘change of perspective’ strategies help with
They’re believed to aid recall as they reduce witness’ use of prior knowledge, expectations and schemas, increasing witness accuracy
How does the enhanced cognitive interview improve the cognitive interview
- Build better relationship-more trusting and Improve quality of communication
- Interviewer not distracting the witness with unnecessary interruptions
- Reducing anxiety in witness
Evaluation of cognitive interview
- Time consuming to conduct, requires specialist training. Takes time to train police officers to use this method
- Compared to standard procedure, cognitive interview produced an overall 46% increase in recall and 90% increase in accuracy. Therefore, more effective
- Some components of CI may be more valuable than others. Research, shown combination of ‘report everything’ and ‘context reinstatement’ produced better recall than any other conditions individually
- ECI allows children and those with learning difficulties, can be interviewed effectively. 45% of ECI are designed for use with children
Who improved the cognitive interview
And what did he find
Fisher et al, and he found that Enhanced cognitive interview gathers more information than standard procedure interview
Describe the KF study
Results, conclusion
A man had a motorcycle accident and had a brain injury
Results= His long term memory was not affected, but wasn’t able to remember anything short term
This shows the memory stores are separate
Loftus et al study on cognitive interviews (or enhanced cognitive interviews)
Method= 1) Walk out of office with pen
2) Walk out office with knife
Results= 1) Pen condition 49% correct in recalling information
2) Knife condition 33% correct in recalling information
Conclusion= Anxiety effects accuracy
-Can link this to enhanced cognitive interview evaluation, as they try to reduce anxiety in interviews
3 types of long term memory
Episodic
Procedural
Semantic
Describe the episodic long term memory
Gives people an autobiographical record of personal experiences
Such as when their birthday is
Describe the procedural long term memory
Type of memory permitting individuals to perform learned tasks with little conscious thought
For example, riding a bike, how to talk,
Describe the semantic long term memory
Type of memory that contains all knowledge an individual has learned
Such as meaning of words
