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A Level Psychology > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What is an aim

A

A statement of what the researcher intends to find out

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2
Q

What is a hypothesis

A

Precise and testable statement specifically of the relationship between variables

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3
Q

What is a directional hypothesis

A

A statement that states the kind of difference very between the two conditions or participants

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4
Q

What is a non directional hypothesis

A

A statement that simply states there will be a difference between the two groups

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5
Q

When would we use each hypothesis

A

Directional- when there is previous evidence known the researcher can predict the direction of the findings
Non directional- when there is little precious evidence or evidence is contradictory

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6
Q

When do we use experimental hypothesis and research hypothesis

A

Experimental in experiments and research for everything else

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7
Q

What is a null hypothesis

A

A statement of no difference

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8
Q

What is the alternate hypothesis

A

It is alternative to the null, says something will happen

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9
Q

Which do we choose from

A

We write both then reject one

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10
Q

What must all hypothesis include

A

Both variables and it must be operationalised

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11
Q

What are the levels of IV

A

The IV needs to be compared to a different level eg loud music and no music

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12
Q

What’s an extraneous variable

A

Any variable other than the IV that can can affect the DV if it’s not controlled at the start of the experiment

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13
Q

What is a confounding variable

A

An uncontrolled extraneous variable that negatively affects results at the end of the experiment

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14
Q

What is a participant variable

A

Things about the people in your study

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15
Q

What is a Situational variable

A

How the environment affects the behaviour

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16
Q

What is an experimenter variable

A

Things to do with the person conducting the experiment

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17
Q

What is social desirability

A

We want to be socially desired so we answer accordingly

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18
Q

What is social desirability a form of

A

Demand characteristics

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19
Q

What is demand characteristics

A

Changing your behaviour on purpose to affect the results

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20
Q

Name the 3 experimental designs

A

Repeated measure, independent group, matched pairs

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21
Q

What is repeated measure

A

Repeating conditions with all participants

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22
Q

What is Independent groups

A

Divide groups into 2 and do separate conditions

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23
Q

What is matched pairs

A

Two groups, but each participant must have a pair in the opposite group with a matched, relevant variable

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24
Q

Evaluate repeated measure

A

There is participant variability and less people needed, but there are order effects and demand characteristics

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25
Q

Evaluate independent groups

A

Demand characteristics and Oder effects are removed, but there is more participant variability

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26
Q

Evaluate matched pairs

A

There is less participant variability and order effects and demand characteristics are removed but there are practical issues

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27
Q

Name the hypothesis framework

A

“Participants who (IV1) will (DV) more/less than participants who (IV2) “

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28
Q

Name the 4 types of experiment

A

Lab, field, quasi and natural

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29
Q

Explain lab experiments

A

A highly controlled environment in which the researcher manipulated the IV and records the effect on the DV

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30
Q

Explain field experiments

A

Same as lab but takes place in a natural, more everyday setting

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31
Q

Explain a quasi experiment

A

It’s almost an experiment, as the IV is an existing difference between people e.g gender

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32
Q

Explain natural experiments

A

When the researcher takes advantage of a naturally occurring IV

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33
Q

What is random sampling

A

Where you take a group of people, assign numbers and use a random number generator

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34
Q

Evaluate random sampling

A

Unlikely that it will be biased and everyone has an equal chance of being chosen, but it can take a long time

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35
Q

What is stratified sampling

A

The sample is a proportional representation of the target population by breaking it down into smaller groups and picking one from each

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36
Q

Evaluate stratified sampling

A

It is very representative and equal, but it is very time consuming and difficult

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37
Q

What is the target population

A

The people you are aiming to generalise the findings to

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38
Q

What is opportunity sampling

A

The sampler selects people who are available at the time

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39
Q

Evaluate opportunity sampling

A

It is convenient, easy, quick and ethical but can be less representative

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40
Q

What is systematic sampling

A

Gaining samples by choosing every 5th, 7th and 11th person on a register

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41
Q

Evaluate systematic sampling

A

Avoids researcher bias, but it is not representative/ can be faulty eg you get an all male sample

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42
Q

What is volunteer sampling

A

Participants putting themselves forward for the experiment

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43
Q

Evaluate volunteer sampling

A

Participants would be motivated, they would have given consent and you have access to many people but all volunteers are likely to be of the same mindset and therefore not representative

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44
Q

The bigger the sample to size the what

A

More representative therefore the easier it it to apply your findings

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45
Q

What are ethics

A

Standards about what is right and wrong

The conflict between what a researcher wants to do and the rights of participants

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46
Q

What are the types of ethics

A 
Informed consent 
Deception 
Confidentiality
Debriefing 
Right to withdraw
Protection from harm
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47
Q

Who controls the ethics

A

BPS

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48
Q

What is a pilot study

A

Small scale trial run

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49
Q

What are pilot studies used with

A

Questionnaires or interviews

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50
Q

What do pilot studies allow researchers do

A

Check coding systems in observational studies
Identify any problems
Gives time to modify the design, procedures and resources

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51
Q

Does it collect any data

A

No

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52
Q

What are the two types of pilot studies

A

Single blind and double blind

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53
Q

What is a single blind procedure

A

The aim is specific but the researcher doesn’t tell the participants
Participants placed in either experimental or control and this is done to prevent demand characteristics

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54
Q

What is a double blind procedure

A

Neither the participant nor the researcher knows who’s in what condition
Only lead researcher knows
This stops researchers acting differently

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55
Q

What two control groups are there

A

Real drug - experimental

Placebo - control

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56
Q

What is an unstructured observation

A

Observation with no structure or aim, provides rich info

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57
Q

What is a positive of an unstructured observation

A

Provides rich information

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58
Q

What is a negative about unstructured observations

A

Researchers tend to record the most eye catching things which is highly subjective

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59
Q

What type of data is produced with unstructured observations

A

Qualitative

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60
Q

What is a structured observation

A

When we break behaviours down into categories that are precise and measurable

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61
Q

What must all behaviours be in the structured observation

A

Operationalised

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62
Q

Define inter-rater reliability

A

The extent to which all observers see and rate the same behaviours during an observation

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63
Q

How can we increase inter-rater reliability

A

Reduce differences by training

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64
Q

When do problems arise with categories

A

When they aren’t mutually exclusive and behaviours fit into more than one category

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65
Q

What is observer bias

A

An observer can see things through their own way

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66
Q

What can we do to check correlation

A

Use statistical tests to check it is higher than 80%

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67
Q

What type of data do we get from structured observation

A

Quantitive data

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68
Q

What are sampling methods

A

How to record data in observations

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69
Q

What are two things we can base our observation categories on

A

Recording data at pre determined times

Counting the number of times an event occurs

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70
Q

If the words correlation, relationship or association are in a graph question, which graph should you use

A

scatter graph

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71
Q

If there is a difference between categories, which graph should you use

A

bar chart

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72
Q

What is the layout for the title of a graph

A

A _____ to show the difference/relationship between (operationalised variables)

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73
Q

What must we operationalise with a graph

A

all labels of axis and title

74
Q

Name two types of discrete data

A

gender, different conditions

75
Q

Name two synonyms for discrete data

A

Nominal/non-continuous

76
Q

Name two types of continuous data

A

Age, height

77
Q

What does a normal distribution look like

A

symmetrical and a bell curve shape

78
Q

What occupies the midpoint of a normal distribution

A

mean, median and mode

79
Q

What is a skewed distribution

A

when they lean to one side or another

80
Q

What is a negative skew

A

Most distribution is on the right side of the graph with a long left tail

81
Q

What is a positive skew

A

most distribution is on the left side with a long right tail

82
Q

What causes a skew

A

a few extreme outlying data points

83
Q

Where is the mode on a skewed graph

A

the highest point

84
Q

Which was from the mode do the median and mean go

A

towards the tail

85
Q

Which is most affected by the skew

A

the mean

86
Q

In a perfect normal distribution, what percentage of the population is between the mean and 1SD either above or below it

A

34.1%

87
Q

What is the standard probability in psychology

A

5% chance aka P=0.05

88
Q

When might we choose a stricter level of significance

A

when we need more confidence in the results being accurate such as human medicine trials

89
Q

What is the probability used in human medical trials

A

1% P=0.01

90
Q

When should we use the sign test

A

When we are looking for a difference not an association
when a repeated measures design is used or matched pairs
when data is in categories

91
Q

What 4 things do you need for the sign test

A

table of critical value
number of participants
significance value (0.05)
directional or non directional hypothesis

92
Q

Why are statistical tests used

A

Statistical testing provides a way of determining whether hypotheses should be accepted or rejected, and they tell us whether differences or relationships between variables happen by chance or are statistically significant

93
Q

What is a causal relationship

A

the cause and effect of IV on DV

94
Q

When only can a causal relationship be established

A

in a true experiment in a lab/field

95
Q

What is peer review used for

A

used to ensure any research is of high quality, genuine and trustworthy before being published

96
Q

what is the process of peer review

A

Sent to editor of a journal​
This is then checked by a panel of 2/3 experts​
Methodology, analysis and conclusions are scrutinised

97
Q

What are the three main outcomes of peer review

A

Research is approved for publication​
Sent back for amendments​
Rejected

98
Q

What are the three main purposes of peer review

A

check quality so it can be trusted by the general public
ensure accuracy of findings before publication
to allocate findings

99
Q

What are the three ways in which a peer review can be carried out

A

single blind, double blind and open review

100
Q

Explain each

A

Open review – the researcher knows who is reviewing them and the reviewers know who they are reviewing​
Single blind – the researcher does not know who is reviewing them but, the reviewer knows who they are reviewing​
Double blind –the researcher does not know who they are reviewing and, the researcher does not know who is reviewing them​

101
Q

What are the strengths of anonmity in reviewing

A

Anonymous reviewers can be honest ​

Anonymous researchers won’t be overly criticised by rival peers

102
Q

What are the limitations of anonmity in reviewing

A

A reviewer might reject or delay approval until after their own research has been published​
A reviewer might reject someone who has rejected them in the past​
They might reject a proposal so they can be allocated funding​

103
Q

Explain the two evaluation points for peer review

A

publication bias - Academic journals tend to publish positive results (file draw problem)​, they post the stories that will sell
burying ground breaking research - Ground-breaking research may be buried if it challenges popular ideas or influential researchers​

104
Q

What does psychology in the economy concern

A

production, consumption and distribution of goods

105
Q

What is the behavioural insights team also known as

A

the nudge unit

106
Q

What does the nudge unit do

A

an organisation set up to apply behavioural economics to try and improve government policy and to save the UK government money. ​

107
Q

What type of social influence does it involve

A

normative as people dont want to be the minority

108
Q

Why is helping peoples mental health good for the economy

A

1/3 of absences are due to mental health and absences scost the economy £15 billion a year

109
Q

What do effective treatments for mental health mean for the work force

A

sufferers are able to manage their condition and return to work reducing absenteeism
be more productive at work (presenteeism)
reduce burden on social services and cost to NHS

110
Q

Explain the economic implications of attachment research

A

role of father is now viewed as equally important, meaning the if the mother is a higher wage earner then she can go back to work

111
Q

Explain the economic implications of memory research

A

If EWT is inaccurate, this means a delayed and flawed justice system which ultimately costs the state​

112
Q

What is reliability

A

when you get the same consistent result every time

113
Q

How did we used to measure IQ

A

head circumference

114
Q

What is internal reliability

A

consistency within a test

115
Q

What is external reliability

A

produces similar results on each replication

116
Q

What is inter-rater reliability

A

different raters produce similar findings

117
Q

What is the test-retest method

A

repeat the test with the same people on different occasions

118
Q

When is this most commonly used

A

questionnaires and psychological tests

119
Q

What type of reliability does this test

A

external

120
Q

What test is used to test internal reliability

A

split half test

121
Q

Explain the split half test

A

test split in half and same participant does both halves, should get same results

122
Q

What causes subjectivity bias

A

when a researchers view of events may be fundamentally different

123
Q

Name 3 ways we can improve reliability

A

take more than one measure
pilot studies
standardise the way data is collected and train observers

124
Q

How can we maximise internal validity

A

by maximising control over extraneous variables

125
Q

What does maximising control over extraneous variables ensure

A

that the course and effect is correct

126
Q

What are the two types of external validity

A

population and ecological

127
Q

What is population validity

A

can the results be generalised to the population

128
Q

What is ecological validity

A

can the results be generalised to the real world

129
Q

How can we make ecological validity high

A

the tasks must involve mundane realism (everyday things)

130
Q

What is temporal validity

A

do findings from a study remain true and valid over a period of time

131
Q

What is face validity

A

does it measure what you are wanting it to measure

132
Q

What are the 4 types of validity that you should talk about in an exam

A

internal (whether the methods are valid)
population
ecological (is it natural)
temporal (has it been repeated frequently and recently)

133
Q

Name two reasons why we use statistical tests

A

work out the probability of whether a particular set of data could have occurred by chance
we can see if a difference between behaviour is statistically significant

134
Q

What does H1 and H0 mean

A

h1 - hypothesis

h0 - null hypothesis

135
Q

What are the three D’s used for

A

used to choose which stat test to use

136
Q

Name the three D’s

A

difference or correlation
design - related (repeated measures) or unrelated (independent measures)
Data - what type

137
Q

How can we find out if its a difference or correlation

A

look at title - association between two variables (C) or IV/DV (D)

138
Q

Which design is unrelated and why

A

independant groups as there are different people/participant variables in each condition

139
Q

Which designs are related

A

matched pairs and repeated measures

140
Q

What is nominal data

A

categorical data that is grouped

141
Q

What is ordinal data

A

data that is ranked or ordered

142
Q

What is interval data

A

public measurement of something real eg time, heart rate, speed

143
Q

Which measure of central tendency relates to each data type

A

nominal - mode
ordinal - median, range
interval - mean, standard deviation

144
Q

When would you use a parametric test

A

data from a normal distribution

variance of two groups should not be significant

145
Q

What is the mnemonic for the stat test table

A 
carrots should come mashed with swede under roast potatoes
chi squared
sign test
chi squared
mann whitney
wilcoxon
spearmans rank
unrelated t test
related t test
Pearsons r
146
Q

What does probability mean

A

the likelihood of something happening

147
Q

What is the probability equation

A

p = number of particular outcomes divided by number of probable outcomes

148
Q

What does 0 and 1 mean in probability

A 
0 = statistically impossible
1 = statistical certainty
149
Q

What does significance mean

A

the level to which the null hypothesis is accepted or rejected

150
Q

What is the role of probability and stats tests

A

to be able to accurately reflect what would happen in the population

151
Q

What is a type 1 error

A

When null is rejected and should have been accepted

false positive

152
Q

What is a type 2 error

A

When null is accepted when should have been rejected

false negative

153
Q

When do we find these errors

A

type 1 - too lenient with significance level

type 2 - too stringent with significance level

154
Q

Define a case study

A

an in depth investigation of a single individual or group

155
Q

Define content analysis

A

a research technique that enables the indirect study of behaviour by examining communication through texts, emails etc

156
Q

Define coding

A

identifying chosen categories used in content analysis

157
Q

Define thematic analysis

A

qualitative approach to analyse implicit or explicit meanings in content

158
Q

Name some strengths with case studies

A

rich, detailed insights
longitudinal so can see any changes
contribute to understanding of normal functioning

159
Q

Name some weaknesses with case studies

A

often atypical cases that cant be generalised

rely on first hand accounts from family that may remember things incorrectly

160
Q

Name some strengths with content analysis

A

an get around ethical issues as no consent needed
high internal validity as no demand characteristics
provides quantative and qualitative data

161
Q

Name some weaknesses with content analysis

A

researcher may attribute thoughts or feelings to a text that weren’t meant by the writer
lack of objectivity

162
Q

What is a feauture that makes psych scientific

A

empirical evidence

163
Q

What is empirical evidence

A

evidence that is directly observable and measurable

164
Q

For a method to be considered empirical what must it also be

A

objective

165
Q

What is objectivity

A

methods are not influenced or biased by beliefs and opinions of observer

166
Q

What is needed in a method to ensure objectivity

A

research must maintain a critical distance

167
Q

What else must research be in order to be scientific

A

replicable

168
Q

What did Popper say about falsifiability

A

scientific theory must be at least possible to disprove

169
Q

What is a paradigm

A

a theory that everyone accepts eg theory of evolution

170
Q

What do the methods need to be open to in order to be falsified

A

hypothesis testing

171
Q

How to write a design a study 12 markers

A 
address each bullet point in turn
be specific - number of p's, design, timings, sampling and why?
details of tasks and materials
step by step guide
ethics
variables
172
Q

What is presenteeism

A

working whilst exhausted

173
Q

Once research is complete, what is done

A

a report is written, following a prescribed format with a number of sections

174
Q

What are the 6 sections

A

abstract, inroduction, method, results, discussion, referencing

175
Q

Explain the abstract

A

150-200 word summary
written last
access to abstract free so can let people decide whether they want to purchase full paper

176
Q

Explain the introduction

A

provides reader context by reviewing existing literature
shows why further research was decided to be carried out
broad to begin with then narrows
ends with specific aims and hypothesis

177
Q

Explain the method

A

divided into sub headings
enough detail for replicability to establish reliability
design/method, sample, materials, procdure, ethics

178
Q

Explain the results

A 
no raw data
measures of central tendancy
summary table
graphical displays
stats tests
hypothesis accept/reject
179
Q

Explain the discussion

A

a verbal description of results and conclusion
how findings link to other things
limitations addressed
suggestion of future research

180
Q

Explain the reference

A

acknowledgement of sources
name and date of other research
full referencing comes at the end in the references section

A Level Psychology (12 decks)

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