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Research methods Flashcards

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1
Q

Aims

A

a general statement of intent before conducting a study

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2
Q

hypothesis

A

a statement made before the study begins stating the relationship between the variables

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3
Q

directional

A

makes clear the sort of difference that is anticipated in the study

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4
Q

non directional

A

only states the differences but does not specify the nature of the differences

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5
Q

when is directional hypothesis used

A

when past study’s and already obtained information suggests the outcome

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6
Q

when is a non directional hypothesis used

A

when we have no idea what the outcome will be as there is no past relationship

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7
Q

extraneous variables

A

unwanted variables that need to be manipulated or removed so they do not affect the dependent variable.

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8
Q

confounding variables

A

any other variable which affects the dependent variable so we are unsure of the true cause of change to the DV.

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9
Q

demand characteristics

A

any clues that may give away the intent of an experiment and lead to the participant acting differently.

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10
Q

investigator effects

A

any unwanted, usually unconscious, behaviours which influence the participants.

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11
Q

randomisation

A

used to minimize the effect of extraneous or confounding variables and investigator effects by using chance wherever possible.

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12
Q

standardisation

A

used to ensure the environment and instructions are the same for all participants

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13
Q

what do we mean by experimental design ?

A

how the testing of participants is arranged to the different experimental conditions

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14
Q

independent groups

A

using two different groups to test different conditions

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15
Q

repeated measures

A

both groups experience the same condition

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16
Q

matched pairs

A

participants are matched together based on similar traits EG gender and they are either put in group A or B

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17
Q

evaluation of independent groups

A

individual differences may affect the DV and produce bias results

they are less economical because one group yields only one set of results compared to repeated measures

order effects do not occur because participants are not likely to guess the aim of the study

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18
Q

evaluation of repeated measures

A

the order of tasks may be important and the order in which they do them may affect the results

order effects arise due to boredom or fatigue after completing one task

participants could work out the aims of the study

participant variables are controlled and fewer are needed as you yield more results anyway

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19
Q

evaluation of matched pairs

A

no order effects or demand characteristics

participants can never be matched exactly

matching is time consuming

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20
Q

lab experiments

A

highly controlled environment

not always an actual lab

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21
Q

field experiments

A

IV is manipulated in a naturalistic way which mimics everyday settings - not fake, real or at least seems it

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22
Q

natural experiments

A

when a researcher takes advantage of a pre existing IV that would exist with or without the researchers input EG smoking

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23
Q

quasi experiments

A

having a pre existing difference between people like age or gender, no one has manipulated this variable

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24
Q

evaluation of lab experiments

A

easy to replicate a lab environment because a standardised procedure is used

allow for precise control of extraneous and independent variables

lack of realism may produce unnatural behaviour

demand characteristics or investigator effects may bias results

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25
Q

evaluation of field experiments

A

natural setting means behaviour is likely to be more realistic

less likelihood of demand characteristics because participants may not know they are being studied

less control over extraneous variables that could bias results, making it difficult for another researcher to replicate results

participants cannot give consent

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26
Q

evaluation of natural experiments

A

very high ecological validity due to behaviour being more realistic

less likelihood of demand characteristics

can be used when it is ethically wrong to replicate IV

more expensive and tine consuming

no control over extraneous variables

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27
Q

evaluation of quasi experiments

A

high control due to lab conditions

confounding variables as we cannot randomly allocate people

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28
Q

what is sampling

A

process of selecting a representative group from a population

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29
Q

random sample

A

everyone from target population has an equal chance of being chosen

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30
Q

systematic sampling

A

sampling frame produced and subjects are chosen in a systematic way

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31
Q

stratified sampling

A

researcher works out the different types of people in population and works out proportions needed for representation

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32
Q

opportunity sampling

A

uses willing and available people

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33
Q

volunteer sample

A

participants volunteer themselves

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34
Q

evaluation of random sample

A

free from researcher bias as it is random

time consuming as full list of target population would be hard to obtain

you could have an unrepresentative target population

selected participants may refuse

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35
Q

evaluation of systematic sample

A

avoid researcher bias

creates representative sample

36
Q

evaluation of stratified sample

A

avoids researcher bias because one selection system has been developed there is no researcher input

produces representative sample

stratification cannot reflect all the ways people differ

37
Q

evaluation of opportunity sample

A

convenient as researcher does not have to compile lists ETC

very biased because samples are drawn from very specific areas. researcher bias also occurs as researcher picks the participants

38
Q

evaluation of volunteer sample

A

it is easy and less time consuming

only certain people volunteer for these types of experiments

39
Q

what are ethics in psychology

A

refers to the correct rules of conduct we must follow when carrying out research. we also have a moral responsibility to protect participants from harm

40
Q

what are the main ethical concerns we must look out for

A 
informed consent
deception
protection from harm
right to withdraw
privacy and confidentiality
41
Q

how do we deal with ethical issues

A

BPS code of conduct controls ethics in psychological studies

42
Q

what are pilot studies

A

small scale versions of studies using a handful of participants. they are conducted to eliminate risk of problem in real study

43
Q

single blind procedure

A

participants do not know the aims of the study

44
Q

double blind procedure

A

neither participant or researcher knows the aim

45
Q

control group

A

group that has nothing happen to them. this serves as a comparrison

46
Q

naturalistic observations

A

happens in place where the observed behaviour naturally takes place

47
Q

controlled observations

A

used when aspects of the observation must be controlled

48
Q

covert observations

A

person/s are unaware they are being studied

49
Q

overt observations

A

person/s know they are being watched. they have given consent

50
Q

participant observations

A

researcher joins the group being studied

51
Q

non participant observations

A

researcher remains separate from the group being studied

52
Q

evaluation of naturalistic VS controlled observations

A

naturalistic have high external validity but are hard to replicate.

controlled observations findings are less reliable but easily replicated

53
Q

evaluation of covert VS overt

A

covert observations produce reliable findings because behaviour is naturalistic. however, there is issues with consent because those being observed can’t consent

overt observations have no ethical issues but there is validity issues because they know they are being watched

54
Q

evaluation of participant VS non participant

A

participant allow the researcher to gain valuable insight into the participants lives. however, they could end up ‘ going native’ and losing objectivity

non participant does not allow insight but they do remain objective.

55
Q

what is a correlation

A

measures the association between two variables, plotted on a scattergram

56
Q

what is a correlation co-efficient and what does it tell us

A

statistical test of a correlation producing a number between -1 and +1 which tells us both the strength and direction of a correlation IE positive/ negative. strong/weak.

57
Q

outline a case study

A

in depth analysis of an individual group.

58
Q

features of a case study

A

often unusual events or people
sometimes typical to develop general ideas
qualitative data
longitudinal

59
Q

evaluation of case studies

A

they provide rich and detailed insights into rare cases.
they enable studies of unusual behaviour which we would not typically be able to study.
they are prone to researcher bias as the final version is subject to the selection of the researcher.
often relies on self report of participants which can be unreliable.

60
Q

what is content analysis

A

a type of observational research in which participants are studied indirectly via the communications they produce. the information is summarised, can be either qualitative (thematic analysis) or quantitative (coding).

61
Q

evaluation of content analysis

A

many ethical issues do not apply - behaviour already exists in a public domain so consent is not needed.
content analysis is flexible - qualitative and quantitative.
often the communication is out of context.
can often lack objectivity.

62
Q

what is reliability

A

a measure of consistency

63
Q

what are the different ways of testing reliability

A

test-retest on the same person

inter-observer ability - two researchers compare observations

64
Q

how do we calculate inter-observer reliability

A

data collected independently by the two researchers is correlated and must exceed +.80 to be reliable

65
Q

how can we improve reliability

A

training interviewers
rewriting questionnaires
standardising procedures
operationalisation of behavioural categories

66
Q

what is validity

A

whether a psychological test is legitimate

67
Q

what are the types of validity and what do they mean

A

internal - have they measured what they intended to
external - can findings be generalised
ecological - generalise to other settings
temporal - do they remain true over time
face - does it look like it measure what it should
concurrent -are findings similar to those found on a well established test.

68
Q

how do we improve validity

A

using control groups and standardisation
incorporating a lie scale within questionnaires
keeping data anonymous
clear behavioural categories which are not blurred and are operationalised
triangulation - comparing two or more studies

69
Q

what is a statistical test

A

used to determine whether a difference or association found is statistically significant. tells us if we should accept or reject a null hypothesis.

70
Q

what are the different statistical tests

A 
chi squared
sign test
Man - Whitney
Wilcoxon
Spearmans rho 
unrelated T
related T
Pearsons R
71
Q

what are the three factors considered in choosing a statistical test

A

1) is it a difference or a correlation
2) what experimental design is being used
3) nominal, ordinal or interval data

72
Q

outline the difference between nominal, ordinal and interval data

A

nominal data is categorical data
ordinal data is ordered in some way
interval data is based of scales of measurements such as units or milimeteres

73
Q

what is probability

A

a measure of the likelihood of an event happening where 0 = not likely and 1 = very likely

74
Q

what is significance

A

it tells us how sure we are that a difference or correlation exists

75
Q

what is a type 1 error

A

false positive

we wrongly reject a true null hypothesis

76
Q

what is a type 2 error

A

false negative

failure to reject a false null hypothesis

77
Q

what is the normal level of significance in psychology

A

0.05

78
Q

what are the 5 features of science in psychology

A 
Paradigms/paradigms shifts
theory construction and hypothesis testing
falsifiability
replicability
objectivity and the empirical method
79
Q

what is a paradigm (features of science)

A

shared assumptions and agreed methods within science

80
Q

what is a paradigm shift (features of science)

A

a scientific revolution. when there is a significant change in the dominant theory of a particular scientific discipline

81
Q

outline theory construction and hypothesis (features of science)

A

A theory is a general set of laws or principles, which occurs through the gathering of evidence.
once a theory has been constructed, we develop a hypothesis to test this theory.

82
Q

what are the features of a hypothesis

A

clear and precise
directional (states a specific difference or expected outcome) or non directional (there will be a difference. vague)
operationalised variables (specific)
testable

83
Q

what is falsifiability (features of science)

A

a theory must be falsifiable in the sense that it admits to the possibility of being and false and can be proven false through testing. A theory is not necessarily right, it just hasn’t been proven wrong yet.

84
Q

what is replicability (features of science)

A

the extent to which scientific research can be repeated by others and the same results are achieved. this happens across cultures and different situations.

85
Q

outline objectivity and the empirical method (features of science)

A

objectivity is minimising all sources of personal bias to not distort findings.
the empirical method is the gathering of evidence through direct observation and experience.
A theory must be empirically tested to be scientific

psychology (11 decks)

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