psychopathology

Question 1

define deviation from social norms

Answer 1

A person’s thinking or behavior is classified as abnormal if it violates the (unwritten) rules about what is expected or acceptable behavior in a particular social group.

Question 2

evaluations for deviation from social norms

Answer 2

never a sole explanation for abnormality
cultural relativism means social norms differ from place to place
can lead to human rights abuses
includes desirability of a behaviour

Question 3

define statistical infrequency

Answer 3

Under this definition of abnormality, a person’s trait, thinking or behavior is classified as abnormal if it is rare or statistically unusual.

Question 4

evaluate statistical infrequency

Answer 4

This definition can provide an objective way, based on data, to define abnormality.
real life application in diagnosis of intellectual disability disorder
unusual characteristics can be positive
not all people benefit from a label

Question 5

define failure to function adequately

Answer 5

Failure to function adequately refers to abnormality that prevent the person from carrying out the range of behaviors that society would expect from them, such as getting out of bed each day, holding down a job, and conducting successful relationships

Question 6

evaluate failure to function adequately

Answer 6

it tries to account for the patients personal perspective
judgement of a patients suffering is subjective
it may just be a deviation from social norms

Question 7

define deviation from ideal mental health

Answer 7

Jahoda suggested six criteria necessary for ideal mental health. An absence of any of these characteristics indicate individuals as being abnormal, in other words displaying deviation from ideal mental health.

Question 8

evaluate deviation from ideal mental health

Answer 8

it is a comprehensive definition of abnormality which covers a broad range of criteria
some of the criteria are culture bound to western Europe and North America
it sets an unrealistically high standard of mental health

Question 9

behavioural characteristics of phobias

Answer 9

panic
avoidance
endurance

Question 10

emotional characteristics of phobias

Answer 10

anxiety

unreasonable reactions to phobic stimulus

Question 11

cognitive characteristics of phobias

Answer 11

selective attention to phobias
irrational beliefs
cognitive disstortions

Question 12

behavioural characteristics of depression

Answer 12

increased / decreased sleeping and eating patterns
aggression
self harm

Question 13

cognitive characteristics of depression

Answer 13

poor concentration
absolutist thinking
dwelling on the negative

Question 14

emotional characteristics of depression

Answer 14

anger
lowered mood
lowered self esteem

Question 15

behavioural characteristics of OCD

Answer 15

compulsions

avoidance

Question 16

emotional characteristics of OCD

Answer 16

anxiety and distress
accompanies depression
guilt and disgust

Question 17

cognitive characteristics of OCD

Answer 17

obsessive thoughts
cognitive dealing strategies
they know that their beliefs are irrational

Question 18

outline the behavioural approach to explaining phobias

Answer 18

the two process model was proposed to explain how phobias occur. The two process model suggested that phobias are acquired by classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning.

in the little Albert study a child was made to have a phobia of rats through classical conditioning: the white rat a neutral stimulus was paired with a loud noise, an unconditioned stimulus, this produces a conditioned response of fear towards the rat because the child learned to associate the rat with the loud noise.

the phobia is maintained by operant conditioning either by positive or negative reinforcement. negative reinforcement is when a person avoids a phobic stimulus which results in a desirable consequence.

Question 19

evaluation of behavioural explanation of phobias

Answer 19

it has good explanatory power as it is able to explain not only how phobias are acquired but also how they are maintained. this therefore creates good application to therapy as we have a good understanding of phobias.

the two process model is not the only explanation for avoidance behaviour. some people choose to avoid the phobic stimulus because of the safety factor it provides. therefore some people avoid the phobic stimulus as it reduces anxiety.

the two process model is an incomplete explanation for phobias. for example evolutionary factors that affect phobias or phobias that don’t follow trauma.

Question 20

outline the behavioural approach to treating phobias

Answer 20

flooding:
works by exposing the patient directly to their worst fears. they’re thrown in at the deep end. For example a claustrophobic will be locked in a closet for 4 hours or an individual with a fear of flying will be sent up in a light aircraft.
flooding aims to expose the sufferer to the phobic object or situation for an extended period of time in a safe and controlled environment.

systematic desensitisation:
This therapy aims to remove the fear response of a phobia, and substitute a relaxation response to the conditional stimulus gradually using counter conditioning. There are three phases to the treatment.

First, the patient is taught a deep muscle relaxation technique and breathing exercises. E.g. control over breathing, muscle detensioning or meditation.

Second, the patient creates a fear hierarchy starting at stimuli that create the least anxiety (fear) and building up in stages to the most fear provoking images. The list is crucial as it provides a structure for the therapy.

Third, the patient works their way up the fear hierarchy, starting at the least unpleasant stimuli and practising their relaxation technique as they go.

Question 21

evaluate the behavioural approach to treating phobias

Answer 21

systematic desensitisation:
it is effective and has proven results. gilroy et al found that a group of 42 treated with systematic desensitisation compared with a control group of relaxation without exposure were better at both 3 and 33 months

suitable for a diverse range of patients because some people have learning difficulties which make flooding hard for them to understand and engage with

it is acceptable to patients because it is pleasant and causes less trauma.

flooding:
it is cost effective because it has quick and proven results which eliminate the need for multiple sessions of therapy

less effective for some types of phobias like social phobias which are more complex than others as they have cognitive aspects

treatment is traumatic and so some patients may not even finish the treatment because of this.

Question 22

outline the cognitive approach to explaining depression

Answer 22

Beck believed that depression prone individuals develop a negative self-schema. They possess a set of beliefs and expectations about themselves that are essentially negative and pessimistic.

The cognitive triad are three forms of negative (i.e helpless and critical) thinking that are typical of individuals with depression: namely negative thoughts about the self, the world and the future.

Beck (1967) identifies a number of illogical thinking processes (i.e. distortions of thought processes). These illogical thought patterns are self-defeating, and can cause great anxiety or depression for the individual.

ELLIS:
A major aid in cognitive therapy is what Albert Ellis (1957) called the ABC Technique of Irrational Beliefs.
* A - Activating Event or objective situation.
* B - Beliefs. E.G. i - can’t - stand - it itis. musturbation
* C - Consequence.

Question 23

evaluate the explanations of depression

Answer 23

BECK
has practical application in CBT

it is not a full explanation because it cannot explain some aspects of depression like anger

good supporting evidence because when 65 pregnant women were assessed for cognitive vulnerability before and after birth the women with were more likely to suffer post natl depression proving that cognitive errors cause depression.

ELLIS
practical application in CBT

is only a partial explanation (see BECK )

not all cases of depression follow an activating event or moment and therefore Ellis cannot explain all cases of depression.

Question 24

outline the cognitive approach to treating depression

Answer 24

BECK
identify thoughts about the negative triad and then challenge them

the therapist also tests the reality of these thoughts

patients may be set homework

ELLIS
extends ABC model to ABCDE D means dispute and E means effect

therapy includes vigorous argument

there is different forms of argument: empirical argument is disputing whether there is actual evidence to the beliefs

Question 25

outline the genetic explanations of OCD (biological approach to OCD)

Answer 25

genes can create a vulnerability to OCD.
37% of patients with OCD had parents with it
works on the basis of the diathesis-stress model
both polygenic - 230 - and aetiologicaly heterogenus

Question 26

evaluate genetic explanations of OCD (biological approach to OCD)

Answer 26

good evidence from twin studies - 68% MZ twins shared OCD
too many candidate genes means it has little predictability value as it is hard to pin down specific genes and combinations of genes
OCD cannot be entirely genetic - OCD was more severe in those with more than one event of childhood trauma.

Question 27

outline neural explanations for OCD (biological approach to OCD)

Answer 27

serotonin plays a key role as this chemical regulates mood so a decrease in serotonin means mood and other functions can be disrupted
some cases are linked with impaired decision making in the lateral frontal lobes.
parahippocampalgyrus may also function abnormally as this is associated with processing unpleasant emotions.

Question 28

evaluate neural explanations for OCD (biological approach to OCD)

Answer 28

some supporting evidence in the fact that many antidepressants work purely on serotonin.
neural mechanisms are never solely implicated in OCD and there is never one process which is consistently implicated.
we should not assume that neural mechanisms cause OCD as it is correlational evidence

Question 29

outline the biological approach to treating OCD (biological approach to OCD)

Answer 29

DRUG THERAPY
the typical drug used for OCD is SSRI (selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors).
SSRIs block receptors in the neuron so that serotonin is not re-absorbed, meaning serotonin increases in the brain.
often, drugs are combined with CBT
other drugs include tricyclics and SNRIs (serotonin-noradrenaline re uptake inhibitors)

Question 30

evaluate the biological approach to treating OCD

Answer 30

when reviewing 17 studies of SSRIs and placeabos SSRIs showed significantly better results. symptoms decline for 70% of takers
drugs have good ethical implications
severe side effects - indigestion, blurred vision, loss of libido, changes to blood pressure.